(The placebo was needle pricked against the skin at true site, then rapidly and lightly tapped against the surface of the skin without penetration.)
“Those who were not susceptible to hypnosis failed to experience as much relief from discomfort as those who were” (p. 383).
“The fact that acupuncture was not more successful in relieving shoulder discomfort than a sham procedure suggests that its much publicized success may be merely a powerful placebo effect” (p. 383).
Katz, Kao, Spiegel et al (1974) also found that low hypnotizables did not benefit much in terms of pain relief with acupuncture.

1975
Ahlberg, D.; Lansdell, H.; Gravitz, M. A.; Chen, T. C.; Ting, C. Y.; Bak, A. F.; Blessing, D. (1975). Acupuncture and hypnosis: Effects on induced pain. Experimental Neurology, 49, 272-280
The reactions of 14 volunteers to electrical stimulation near the supra- orbital nerve were studied under acupuncture, placebo-acupuncture, and hypnosis. As the intensity of stimulation increased, a minimum sensation, a minimum pain, and then a maximum or intolerable pain sensation were produced. Under hypnosis the average intensity of the stimulus for producing these sensations was higher than before the trance induction. Under acupuncture and placebo-acupuncture no clear increase in current intensity was observed. Acupuncture, as well as hypnosis, did not consistently change the blood, blood pressure, pulse rate, EKG, respiratory rate, or EEG.

Saletu, B.; Saletu, M.; Brown, M.; Stern, J.; Sletten, I.; Ulett, G. (1975). Hypno-analgesia and acupuncture analgesia: A neurophysiological reality?. Neuropsychobiology, 1, 218-242.
The effects of hypnosis, acupuncture and analgesic drugs on the subjective experience of pain and on objective neurophysiological parameters were investigated. Pain was produced by brief electric stimuli on the wrist. Pain challengers were: hypnosis (induced by two different video tapes), acupuncture (at specific and unspecific loci, with and without electrical stimulation of the needles), morphine and ketamine. Evaluation of clinical parameters included the subjective experience of pain intensity, blood pressure, pulse, temperature, psychosomatic symptoms and side effects. Neurophysiological parameters consisted of the quantitatively analyzed EEG and somatosensory evoked potential (SEP). Pain was significantly reduced by hypnosis, morphine and ketamine, but not during the control session. Of the four acupuncture techniques, only electro- acupuncture at specific loci significantly decreased pain. The EEG changes during hypnosis were dependent on the wording of the suggestion and were characterized by an increase of slow and a decrease of fast waves. Acupuncture induced just the opposite changes, which were most significant when needles were inserted at traditional specific sites and stimulated electrically. The evoked potential findings suggested that ketamine attenuates pain in the thalamo-cortical pathways, while hypnosis, acupuncture and morphine induce analgesia at the later CNS stage of stimulus processing. Finally some clinical-neurophysiological correlations were explored.

1974
Chaves, John F.; Barber, Theodore Xenophon (1974). Acupuncture analgesia: A six-factor theory. Psychoenergetic Systems, 1, 11-21.
The dramatic successes claimed for acupuncture suggest that Western medicine has failed to identify important factors that pertain to the nature of pain and its control. This may not be the case, as there are at least six factors which are often overlooked by writers describing the absence of pain (i.e., analgesia) during acupuncture: (a) the patients accepted for surgery under acupuncture usually believe that it will work, (b) drugs are frequently used in combination with acupuncture, (c) the pain associated with surgical procedures is less than is generally assumed, (d) the patients are prepared in special ways for surgery under acupuncture, (e) the acupuncture needles distract the patient from the pain of surgery and, (f) suggestions for pain relief are present in acupuncture treatment. It is concluded that more research is needed to determine whether additional factors are needed to help explain the phenomenon of acupuncture analgesia.

ADDICTIONS

1993
Eisen, Mitchell (1993). Assessing the hypnotizability of college students from addictive families. Contemporary Hypnosis, 10, 11-17.
ABSTRACT: The present study examined the relation between hypnotizability and the report of growing up in an addictive family where one or both parents were addicted to drugs and/or alcohol. A sample of 113 college students (47 male, 66 female) were studied for measure of childhood abuse, addiction history, dissociation and hypnotizability. As predicted, subjects from an addictive family were more hypnotizable than subject from a nonaddictive family. However, no relation between family addiction and dissociation was secured. Whereas abuse was found to be related to dissociation, it was not related to hypnotizability. The findings are discussed in terms of the effects of child abuse and neglect on dissociation and hypnotizability as it relates to the addictive family.

Page, Roger A.; Handley, George W. (1993). The use of hypnosis in cocaine addiction. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 36, 120-123.

An unusual case is presented in which hypnosis was successfully used to overcome a $50-0 (five grams) per day cocaine addiction. The subject was a female in her twenties. Six months into her addiction, she acquired a commercial weight-control tape that she used successfully to stop smoking cigarettes (mentally substituting the word “smoking”), as well as to bring her down from her cocaine high and allow her to fall asleep. After approximately 8 months of addiction, she decided to use the tape in an attempt to overcome the addiction itself. Over the next 4 months, she listened to the tape three times a day, mentally substituting the word “coke.” At the end of this period, her addiction was broken, and she has been drug free for the past 9 years. Her withdrawal and recovery were extraordinary because hypnosis was the only intervention, and no support network of any kind was available.

1990
Suedfeld, Peter (1990). Restricted environmental stimulation and smoking cessation:
A 15-year progress report. International Journal of the Addictions, 25, 861-888.

The first successful use of restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST) as a method of smoking cessation was reported in this journal in 1972. Since then, close to 20 papers and articles have further investigated this application. The results have been consistently positive and have further shown that–unlike most techniques–REST combines synergistically with other effective treatment modalities. The effect of REST seems to target primarily the major problem with other known treatments in this area: It substantially reduces the relapse rate among clients who quit smoking at the end of treatment. Furthermore, REST is safe, has no known adverse side effects, and is easily tolerated by most participants. Nevertheless, the method has not found wide acceptance among practitioners. This paper explores and answers some of the concerns that may be involved in its relative lack of popularity.

NOTES: Provides a thorough review of REST (restricted environmental stimulation technique) and smoking cessation, with analysis of why the technique has not been widely adopted, how to set up a lab (including costs and equipment), and the political considerations surrounding REST research (many of which would apply to hypnosis). The author describes how sensory restriction got a bad reputation in Hebb’s lab. But both “brainwashing” and intensive interrogation rely primarily on overstimulation and intense stimulus bombardment; these are occasionally interrupted for brief periods to arouse fear and uncertainty about their resumption.
The optimal approach in treatment of smokers seems to be to combine an approach that maximizes immediate cessation rates, with REST which maximizes continuing maintenance rates. Tikalsky (1984) reported that combining REST with self- management training and the establishment of a social support group, there was a 6-month abstinence rate of 88%. (This was a clinical treatment study rather than a controlled experiment.)
“The estimated maintenance rates after REST converge at about 50%, about twice as high as those commonly accepted as characterizing the literature (see, e.g., Hunt and Bespalec, 1974; Shumaker & Grunberg, 1986). The unusually high maintenance rates (percentage of subjects who were abstinent at every follow-up throughout 12 months, using as the baseline those who had quit at end of treatment) are in most–although not all- -cases combined with only average quit rates (using total number of followed-up subjects as the baseline), indicating that the initial impact of REST is less impressive than its effect on long-term maintenance” (p. 872).
Why is REST underutilized? Some say it is a placebo. But there is evidence that “expectancy has but little effect on objectively quantifiable (as opposed to subjective) measures in REST (Barabasz & Barabasz, 1990; Suedfeld, 1969b; Suedfeld, Landon, Epstein, & Pargament, 1971)” (p. 873). See also Suedfeld & Baker-Brown (1986).
How does REST work? “In REST, the normal flow of exogenous stimuli is suddenly and very drastically reduced. As a result, attention can be (in fact, must be, if the processing of information is a basic human need) refocused to the ongoing internal generation of physiological, cognitive, affective, memorial, imaginal, and other stimulation. This enables REST participants to concentrate on working out personal problems, including (if so desired) those related to the continuation or termination of their smoking habit” (p. 874).
Second, the removal of specific smoking-related cues interrupts automatic, overlearned response sequences so most clients report that they no longer smoke mechanically, and conditioned cravings for a cigarette are extinguished in many Ss.
It appears from the literature that low-arousal treatments such as hypnosis and meditation are reinforced by REST. REST should improve conditioning or cognitive change therapies because it improves learning and memory, and research supports this assumption. REST also should facilitate the acceptance of information (‘messages’) because it decreases defenses against novel or dissonant information, but that has not proven true in research to date.

1988
Neufeld, V.; Lynn, Steven Jay (1988). A single-session group self-hypnosis smoking cessation treatment: A brief communication. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 36 (2), 75-79.

This study was designed to assess the efficacy of a manual-based, single-session group of self-hypnosis intervention. At 3 months follow-up, 25.92% of the total number of participants (14 male, 13 females) reported continuous abstinence, and at 6 months, 18.52% of the participants reported continuous abstinence. Reported social support and motivation to quit were both associated with successful outcome. Comparison of the current data with other findings reported by the American Lung Association (Davis, Faust, & Ordentlich, 1984) suggests that treatment effects may not be solely attributable to the use of a maintenance manual, education, and attention. Limitations of the research associated with issues of experimental control, generalizability of the findings, and outcome measures are discussed.

1987
Gmur, M.; Tschopp, A. (1987). Factors determining the success of nicotine withdrawal: 12-year follow-up of 532 smokers after suggestion therapy (by a faith healer). International Journal of Addictions, 22, 1189-1200.

In 1973, 532 heavy smokers were questioned prior to treatment by the faith healer Hermano and requestioned 4 months, 1 year, 5 years, and 12 years after the therapeutic ritual. From the moment of treatment, 40% of the subjects remained nonsmokers (with no relapse) after 4 months, 32.5% after one year, 20% after 5 years, and 15.9% after 12 years. At the time of the follow-up, 37.5% of the Ss were nonsmokers, the majority of them having stopped smoking again after suffering a relapse. To investigate factors determining success, Ss who for 12 years had uninterrupted abstinence were compared with those who for 12 years had continued to smoke almost without interruption. Personality factors, sociodemographic features, and characteristics of smoking behavior showed no demonstrable connection with the tendency to relapse. On the other hand, it did prove possible to explain 16% of the variance in the responses to treatment: in particular, high alcohol consumption, markedly addictive smoking, rare attendance at church, and the attitude that ‘you have to believe in the treatment’ were found to be conducive to relapse and addiction.

1984
Manganiello, Aaron J. (1984). A comparative study of hypnotherapy and psychotherapy in the treatment of methadone addicts. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 26, 273-279.

This study sought to examine the effects of hypnotherapy on the ability of methadone-maintained patients to reduce and/or eliminate their drug-taking behavior. Seventy adult volunteers at a methadone maintenance program were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The experimental group received hypnotherapy for 6 months in addition to the psychotherapy offered as standard clinic treatment. The control group received only psychotherapy. After treatment a 6-month follow-up was conducted by interviews. Groups were compared to determine significant differences in the number of successful withdrawals, the mean change in methadone dose level, incidence of illicit drug use, and degree of discomfort. Significant differences were found on all measures. The experimental group had significantly less discomfort and illicit drug use, and a significantly greater number of withdrawals. At six-month follow-up, 94% of the Ss in the experimental group who had achieved withdrawal remained narcotic-free

1981

Throll, D. A. (1981). Transcendental meditation and progressive relaxation: Their psychological effects. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37 (4), 776-781.

Administered the Eysenck Personality Inventory, the State-Trait-Anxiety Inventory, and two questionnaires on health and drug usage to 39 Ss before they learned Transcendental Meditation (TM) or Progressive Relaxation (PR). All Ss were tested immediately after they had learned either technique and then retested 5, 10, and 15 weeks later. There were no significant differences between groups for any of the psychological variables at pretest. However, at posttest the TM group displayed more significant and comprehensive results (decreases in Neuroticism/Stability, Extroversion/Introversion, and drug use) than did the PR group. Both groups demonstrated significant decreases in State and Trait Anxiety. The more pronounced results for meditators were explained primarily in terms of the greater amount of time that they spent on their technique, plus the differences between the two techniques themselves.

1980
Holroyd, Jean (1980). Hypnosis treatment for smoking: An evaluative review. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 28 (4), 341-357.

17 studies of hypnosis for treatment of smoking published since 1970 were reviewed. Abstinence after 6 months posttreatment ranged from 4% to 88%. Effectiveness of treatment outcome was examined in terms of: S population, individual versus group treatment, standardized versus individualized suggestions, use of self-hypnosis, number of treatment sessions and time span covered by the treatment, and use of adjunctive treatment. At 6 months follow-up, more than 50% of smokers remained abstinent in programs in which there were several hours of treatment, intense interpersonal interaction (e.g., individual sessions, marathon hypnosis, mutual group hypnosis), suggestions capitalizing on specific motivations of individual patients, and adjunctive or follow-up contact. The 17 studies are presented in sufficient detail to permit clinicians to follow the published procedures, and recommendations are made for future research.

1979
Crasilneck, Harold B. (1979). Hypnosis in the control of chronic low back pain. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 22, 71-78.

Twenty-nine patients were referred because of low back pain. Five were excluded on psychological grounds because they were highly masochistic, extremely depressed, or manifested a low frustration tolerance. Of the 24 in the treatment group, 18 of the patients had surgery two or more times, and six one time. In each case low back pain returned within three to six months after surgery. Twenty of the patients were addicted to or excessively dependent on medications including acetaminophen, secobarbital, codeine phosphate, oxycodone hydrochloride, and morphine sulphate. Common factors among the patients included (1) consistent pain which was primarily organic in origin, (2) analgesic dependence, (3) insomnia, (4) reactive depression, (5) excessive interpersonal dependence, and (6) a fear of becoming a lifelong ‘backache cripple.’ Twenty patients responded positively; four patients failed to respond to the repeated hypnotic induction techniques and were considered failures. Sixteen reported an average of 80% relief during the first four sessions, and all 20 patients reported an average of 70% relief (based on verbal estimates by patients) by the sixth session. Fifteen voluntarily discontinued medication by the third week of therapy, and the rest were withdrawn by their physicians during the ensuing four weeks. Most patients were seen daily the first week, three times the second week, twice the third week, and thereafter as necessary. The mean number of out-patient sessions was 31 over an average of nine months. All patients were taught self-hypnosis. None of the individuals retained their addiction, and only occasionally did they require analgesics. Patients were seen by their referring physicians as needed during the course of hypnotherapy, and frequent consultations between the therapists created a combination of treatments best suited for each patient. It is concluded that hypnosis may be utilized maximally as an important adjunct to other therapeutic methods in the treatment of low back pain.

1978
Stanton, Harry E. (1978). A one-session hypnotic approach to modifying smoking behavior. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 26, 22-29.

Recent literature reviewing attempts to modify smoking behavior through the use of hypnosis is outlined, and an approach utilizing only 1 treatment is described. This single session includes: (a) the establishment of a favorable “mental set” on the part of the patient, (b) a hypnotic induction, (c) ego-enhancing suggestions, (d) specific suggestions directed toward the cessation of smoking, (e) an adaption of the “red balloon” visualization, and (f) success visualization. Of 75 patients treated by this technique, 45 ceased smoking. 6 months after the treatment session, 34, or 45%, were still nonsmokers, attesting to the efficacy of the method.

1977
Barkley, R. A.; Hastings, J. E.; Jackson, T. L., Jr. (1977). The effects of rapid smoking and hypnosis in the treatment of smoking behavior. , 25 (1), 7-17.

29 Ss were assigned to one of 3 treatment conditions and treated for their cigarette smoking over a 2-week period. These conditions were: group rapid smoking, group hypnosis, and an attention-placebo control group. All treatments produced significant reductions in average daily smoking rates during the treatment phase but all Ss returned to near baseline levels of smoking by the 6-week follow-up. The rapid smoking and hypnosis groups did not differ from the control group in smoking rates at treatment termination or at the 6-week follow-up. They also did not differ from the control group in the number of Ss abstaining from smoking by treatment termination but did differ at follow-up. Eventually, at the 9-month follow-up, only Ss from the group rapid smoking condition had significantly more abstainers than the control group. The results suggested that rapid smoking can work as effectively in group procedures as previous individualized approaches had demonstrated. Group hypnosis, while less effective than some previous individualized approaches had indicated, was nevertheless only marginally less effective than the group rapid smoking procedure. The use of abstinence rates as opposed to average rates of smoking was strongly recommended as the best measure of treatment effectiveness for future research in this area.

1970
Kline, Milton V. (1970). The use of extended group hypno-therapy sessions in controlling cigarette habituation. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 18, 270-282.

Results of the present experimental approach to the treatment of smoking habituation tend to be consistent with the view of smoking habituation as a dependence reaction, parallel to drug addiction, and with the concept that habituation must be examined as a psychosomatic entity. Therapeutic approaches must take into account the psychophysiological characteristics of deprivation behavior. Hypnosis, and particularly extended periods of hypnotherapy involving the reduction and control of deprivation behavior, seems to offer a promising approach to the therapeutic treatment of smoking habituation. (German & Spanish summaries) (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved)

Spiegel, Herbert (1970). A single-treatment method to stop smoking using ancillary self-hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 18 (4), 235-250.

Discusses the 1st 615 patient-smokers who were treated with a single 45-min session of psychotherapy reinforced by hypnosis. Technique of treatment, including rationale of approach, induction procedure, assessment of hypnotizability, and training instructions to stop smoking are presented in detail. 6-mo follow-up study results are discussed. Of 44% who returned a questionnaire, hard-core smokers stopped for at least 6 mo. Another 20% reduced their smoking to varying degrees. Results of a 1-session treatment compare favorably with, and often are significantly better than, other longer-term methods reported in the literature. It is suggested that every habitual smoker who is motivated to stop be exposed to the impact of this procedure, or its equivalent, so that at least 1 of 5 smokers can be salvaged. (French & Spanish summaries). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved)

Spiegel, Herbert (1970). A single-treatment method to stop smoking using ancillary self-hypnosis: Final remarks in response to the discussants. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 18 (4), 268.

Reexamines the major points of the author”s papers (see PA, Vol. 45:Issue 1) on smoking modification. Data inclusion, therapy length, Ss” ability to change, and use of multiple therapists and tape recordings as reinforcement are discussed. It is concluded that the method should be used to “sharpen our techniques that we can relatively quickly learn who has the capacity to change for given goals, and then to help evoke the desired change as efficiently as possible.” (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved)

1964
Ludwig, Arnold M.; Lyle, W. H. (1964). The experimental production of narcotic drug effects and withdrawal symptoms through hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12, 1-17.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of suggestion in the production of certain narcotic drug effects and in the narcotic abstinence syndrome. In addition, we were interested in determining the extent to which actual narcotic drug effects could be reversed through post-hypnotic suggestion. The results of our study indicated that formerly addicted Ss, who had experienced at least one “cold turkey” withdrawal from narcotics, were able to attain a highly realistic suggested narcotic drug and withdrawal experience through hypnosis with appropriate physiological and behavioral changes, which they were unable to achieve in other control conditions. Moreover, when actual narcotic drugs were administered, certain Ss were able to return to normal behavior following appropriate post-hypnotic suggestions. Hypnosis was deemed to be essential in the production of all these effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)

Ludwig, Arnold M.; Lyle, William H., Jr.; Miller, Jerome S. (1964). Group hypnotherapy techniques with drug addicts. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12 (2), 53-66.

This study was designed to investigate the appropriateness of a number of group hypnotherapeutic techniques which might be used in the treatment of addict patients. It is the belief of the investigators that the more “magical,” “authoritative,” and practical-oriented techniques seem more appropriate and useful than techniques designed to elicit deep, insightful understanding of the emotional problems underlying drug addiction. Many of the specific hypnotherapeutic techniques used are described, and some of the difficulties and advantages of group hypnosis as a treatment method are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)

AGE DEVELOPMENT

1994

Freyd, Jennifer J. (1994). Betrayal-trauma: Traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse. Ethics and Behavior, 4.

Betrayal-trauma theory suggests that psychogenic amnesia is an adaptive response to childhood abuse. When a parent or other powerful figure violates a fundamental ethic of human relationships, victims may need to remain unaware of the trauma not to reduce suffering but rather to promote survival. Amnesia enables the child to maintain an attachment with a figure vital to survival, development, and thriving. Analysis of evolutionary pressures, mental modules, social cognitions, and developmental needs suggests that the degree to which the most fundamental human ethics are violated can influence the nature, form, processes, and responses to trauma.

NOTES: “A logical extension of this research direction, based on a strategy that has been very effective in cognitive neuroscience, would be to look for neuroanatomical underpinnings of the cognitive mechanisms implicated in dissociation. … For instance, the ability to dissociate current experience may depend partly on representational structures that support spontaneous perceptual transformations of incoming events. One possible perceptual transformation that is amenable to scientific investigation, would be the creation of spatial representations in which the mental ‘observer’ is spatially distinct from the real body of that observer. Such a representation would fit patient descriptions of ‘leaving their body’ during a traumatic episode and viewing the scene as if from afar. Additionally one could investigate the role of mental recoding and restructuring during memory ‘recovery’ and psychotherapy” (pp. 19-20).

AGE REGRESSION

1993
De Pascalis, Vilfredo (1993). EEG spectral analysis during hypnotic induction, hypnotic dream and age regression. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 15,
EEG was recorded monopolarly at frontal (F3, F4), central (C3, C4) and posterior (in the middle of O1-P3-T5 and O2-P4-T6 triangles) derivations during the hypnotic induction of the Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale (SHCS) and during performance following suggestions of hypnotic dream and age-regression as expressed in the before-mentioned scale. 10 low-hypnotizable and 9 highly-hypnotizable and right- handed female students participated in one experimental session. Evaluations were Fast- Fourier spectral analyses during the following conditions: waking-rest in eyes-open and eyes-closed condition; early, middle, and late phases of hypnotic induction; rest-hypnosis in eyes closed condition; hypnotic dream and age regression. After spectral analysis of 0 to 44 Hz, the mean spectral amplitude estimates across seven Hz bands (theta 1, 4-6 Hz, theta 2, 6-8 Hz; alpha 1, 8-10 Hz; alpha 2, 10-13 Hz; beta 1, 13-16 Hz; beta 2, 16-20 Hz; beta 3, 20-36 Hz) and the 40-Hz EEG band (36-44 Hz) for each experimental condition were extracted. In eyes-open and -closed conditions in waking and hypnosis highly-hypnotizable subjects produced a greater 40-Hz EEG amplitude than did low hypnotizable subjects at all frontal, central and posterior locations. In the early and middle hypnotic induction highly-hypnotizables displayed a greater amount of beta 3 than did low hypnotizables and this difference was even more pronounced in the left hemisphere. With posterior scalp recordings, during hypnotic dream and age regression, high hypnotizables displayed, as compared with the rest-hypnosis condition, a decrease in alpha 1 and alpha 2 amplitudes. This effect was absent for low hypnotizables. Beta 1, beta 2 and beta 3 amplitudes increased in the left hemisphere during age regression for high hypnotizable; low hypnotizables, in contrast, displayed hemispheric balance across imaginative tasks. High hypnotizables during the hypnotic dream also displayed in the right hemisphere a greater 40-Hz EEG amplitude as compared with the left hemisphere. This difference was even more evident for posterior recording sites. This hemispheric trend was not evidenced for low hypnotizable subjects. Theta power was never a predictor of hypnotic susceptibility, 40-Hz EEG amplitude displayed a very high main effect (p<0.004) for hypnotizability in hypnotic conditions by displaying a greater 40-Hz EEG amplitude in high hypnotizables with respect to lows. NOTES In the Discussion section, the authors indicate that they have no idea why they didn't replicate results of other theta studies, including their own, except maybe due to complex interaction among personality, subject selection, situation-specific factors, and hypnotizability. They observe that the alpha results conform with previous findings (p. 163). Beta bands were sensitive. Highs showed left-hemisphere prevalence in all beta bands during age regression; they also showed hemispheric balance in the hypnotic dream condition. Beta 3 amplitude was also greater among highs than lows. "among high hypnotizables, beta 3 amplitude in the early hypnotic condition was greater in the left hemisphere as compared to the right and as the hypnotic induction proceeded hemisphere balancing, with reduced beta 3 amplitude, was displayed. This result appears in agreement with the predictions of the neurophysiological model proposed by Gruzelier et al. (1984) and Gruzelier (1988) as well as with other studies in which beta rhythm was found to discriminate performances between high and low hypnotizables (e.g., Meszaros et al., 1986, 1989; Sabourin et al., 1990)" (p. 163-164). 40 Hz amplitude was higher in highs and increased in right hemisphere during the hypnotic dream, especially in posterior areas. "This pattern of hemispheric activation may be interpreted as an expression of the greater right-hemisphere activation and of the release of posterior cortical functions during the hypnotic dream and is compatible with the predictions of the Gruzelier model of hypnosis, however, the results obtained in this study for 40-Hz EEG amplitude failed to reveal an inhibition of the left-hemisphere activity with the progress of the hypnotic induction" (p. 164). (They note that De Pascalis & Penna, 1990, agreed with the Gruzelier 1988 model: highs in early induction had increase of 40-Hz in both hemispheres, but as induction proceeded they had inhibition of left and increase in right hemisphere activity. In this current experiment, only beta 3 showed the hemispheric trend of Gruzelier's model. They cite other details of current study, p. 164, not consonant with Gruzelier.) "The 40-Hz EEG rhythm, which according to Sheer (1976) is the physiological representation of focused arousal, appeared to discriminate between differential patterns of high and low hypnotizables. Both during hypnotic induction and during hypnotic dream and age regression highly hypnotizables exhibit greater 40-Hz EEG amplitude with respect to the lows. These findings support the validity of the assumption that hypnosis is characterized by a state of focused attention (Hilgard, 1965) and that 40-Hz EEG activity reflects differential attentional patterns among subjects high and low in hypnotizability. On the basis of these findings it would appear that 40-Hz EEG and beta 3 spectral amplitudes may prove to be useful measures of individual hypnotizability" (p. 164). 1988 ravindakshan, K. K.; Jenner, F. A.; Souster, L. P. (1988). A study of the effects of hypnotic regression on the auditory evoked response. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 36, 89-95. Hypnotic regression in 6 hypnotizable Ss experienced in regression was studied by means of the auditory evoked response (AER). AER latency and amplitude is affected by arousal, attention, stimulus strength, and age. Ss aged between 27 and 61 years were regressed to the age of 7-9 years, and AERs were compared among three states of consciousness: normal awareness, hypnotic relaxation, and hypnotic regression. There was no change in AER morphology in the direction of that seen in children. Thus, age regression is not seen as a reversion to an earlier stage of neurological development but perhaps as role playing which is spontaneous and uninhibited, with the benefit of innocent belief in its accuracy. NOTES: Raikov (1982) regressed 2 experienced Ss, comparing his results with those of actors acting as children and low hypnotizable subjects; he claimed to be able to reproduce neonatal reflexes in the highly hypnotizable Ss but not in the actors and low hypnotizable subjects. AER's were used "because latency of the major waves and amplitude of the response is affected by level of arousal and attention..., strength of the stimulus, and, more importantly for this study, by age.... Surwillo (1981) noted that peak latencies of AERs were 16-21 msec longer in children aged 9-13 than in adults..." (p. 90) DISCUSSION reviews the literature. "Changes in the intensity of light stimulation can cause significant shifts in the amplitude and latency of the visual evoked response, but neither the amplitude nor the latency have been changed by suggested alterations in stimulus intensity during hypnosis (Andreassi, Balinsky, Gallichio, de Simone, & Mellers, 1976; Beck & Barolin, 1965; Beck, Dustman, & Beier, 1966; Zakrzewski & Szelenberger, 1981). Similarly, significant changes were seldom found in the AER with suggested variations of sound intensity during hypnosis (Amadeo & Yanovski, 1975) and in somatosensory responses to electrical stimuli applied to the fingers with suggested anesthesia during hypnosis (Halliday & Mason, 1964). Deehan and Robertson (1980) were able to abolish the AER completely during hypnosis, but their stimuli were very different from that used in the present study. "In all such studies, hypnosis and suggestions were aimed at changing the intensity of the stimulus to S's awareness, while the actual intensity of the stimulus was unaltered. In the present study, the authors attempted to find whether the morphology of the AER in children could be reproduced by age regression, without altering the nature or intensity of the stimulus in its delivery.... Like previous investigators, the present authors noticed that the tracings were cleaner and easier to produce during hypnosis (see Figure 1), although the changes in neurological development observed by Raikov (1982) were not evident" (pp. 93-94). 1988-1999 Brink, Nicholas E. (1988-89). Using imagery as a planning and treatment guide in therapy. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 8, 187-200. Procedures and case studies of how imagery can provide a means to redefine the problem, an agenda for therapy, information for determining the appropriate interventions, a criteria for evaluating progress, and the appropriate time for termination are presented. Images are evoked using one of several imagery situations. These images may converge on the common dynamic pattern clarifying the problem, represent different aspects of the problem, or represent different problems, depending upon the hypnotic suggestion used in evoking the images. The emerging pattern(s) provide the agenda for therapy. Emotional energy in imagery work is used to determine the appropriate timing and content for the therapeutic interventions. Emotional release provides a means of evaluating progress. When each of the items on the agenda are resolved with an emotional release the time for termination is near at hand. Therapy begins by evoking a minimum of three images using one of several situations, including time regression, seeing behind doors on a hallway, or going down in an elevator. These images may represent different aspects of the problem, different problems, or, by using the affect bridge, may converge on a common dynamic pattern clarifying the nature of a single problem. 1961 Barber, Theodore Xenophon (1961). Experimental evidence for a theory of hypnotic behaviour: II. Experimental controls in hypnotic age-regression. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 9, 181-193. 5 studies are often cited in support of the contention that involuntary infantile or childhood behavior patterns are revived under hypnotic age-regression. These studies are presented and re-evaluated in terms of other experimental evidence. The author concludes that the "good" hypnotic subject may vividly imagine that he is a child and may perform childlike behavior; "however, it has not been demonstrated that during ''hypnotic age-regression'' earlier patterns of behavior are revived that could not be performed voluntarily by an appropriately motivated but unhypnotized adult. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4II81B. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) 1959 NOTES "Summary and Conclusions "Six 'good' hypnotic Ss were given a ten-minute 'hypnotic induction' and a series of 'hypnotic tests.' Both basic skin conductance and momentary variations in skin conductance (GSR) were recorded during the experiment. "The results were as follows: 1. There was no significant variation in skin conductance during the 'hypnotic induction procedure.' 2. Skin conductance generally increased throughout the remainder of the experiment, ie., when the Ss wre given suggestions of 'sensory hallucinations,' 'age-regression,' 'analgesia,' 'negative hallucinations,' and 'post'-hypnotic behavior. 3. The Ss usually showed a GSR when they were given 'hallucinatory' suggestions, i.e., when they were told that they were becoming 'itchy,' 'thirsty,' and 'very hot.' 4. The GSR to a pinprick was essentially the same before the experiment and during 'hypnotic analgesia.' Also, the GSR was essentially the same, during 'hypnotic analgesia,' (a) when three Ss were told they would receive a pinprick but did _not_ receive the pinprick, (b) when they were told they would receive a pinprick and _did_ receive the pinprick, and (c) when they received a pinprick without being told they would receive it. 5. Four Ss showed a GSR each time they were asked to look at a 'negatively hallucinated' object and person. Two Ss did _not_ show a GSR when they were asked to look at the 'negatively hallucinated' object (or person). The four Ss who showed a GSR stated, during or after the experiment, that they were by no means convinced that the person or object was no longer in the room. The two Ss who did not show GSR stated, after the experiment, that they had been 'certain' that the object (or person) was not present in the room. 6. Although the Ss stated that they did not 'remember' the 'post'-hypnotic suggestion (or anything else about the experiment), they usually showed a GSR when the E made the _preliminary_ movements to give the signal for the 'post'-hypnotic behavior. (They also showed a GSR when E gave the signal for the 'post'hypnotic behavior.) "Since skin conductance is an index of the S's level of 'activation,' 'arousal,' or 'excitation,' these results indicate the following: 1. Ss do not necessarily become more 'passive' or 'relaxed' during the 'hypnotic induction procedure.' 2. Ss often become more and more 'excited' and 'aroused' when they are given a series of 'active' suggestions such as 'sensory hallucinations,' 'age-regression,' etc. 3. Ss often show momentary 'excitement' when they are 'hallucinating.' 4. A pinprick can 'arouse' a S to the same extent during 'hypnotic analgesia' as it can during 'normal waking.' In addition, 'hypnotic analgesic' Ss are often just as much 'aroused' by the threat of a pinprick as they are by an actual pinprick. 5. Many Ss become momentarily 'excited' when they are asked to look directly at an object (or person) which they have been told they will not be able to see. However, _some_ Ss do _not_ show this momentary 'excitement.' 6. Although Ss may state that they do not 'remember' the 'post'-hypnotic suggestion, they often become momentarily 'excited' when the E makes _preliminary_ motions to give the signal for the 'post'-hypnotic act" (pp. 90-92). AGE REGRESSION Fellows BJ. Creamer M. An investigation of the role of 'hypnosis', hypnotic susceptibility and hypnotic induction in the production of age regression. British Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology 1978;17(2):165-71 In response to criticisms of the methodology of Barber's(1969)experiments, a 2x2 factorial design, varying hypnotic susceptibility and hypnotic treatment, was used to study the role of 'hypnosis' in the production of age regression by suggestion. Twenty subjects of high hypnotic susceptibility and 20 subjects of low hypnotic susceptibility were randomly allocated to one of two treatment conditions:hypnotic induction procedure or motivational instructions. Both treatments were followed by suggestions to regress to the age of seven years. Two measures of age regression were taken:the Draw-A-Man-Test and a subjective rating of the reality of the experience. The results showed significant effects of both variables, with high suceptibility and induction treatment producing better regression on both measures than low susceptibility and motivation treatment. Hypnotic susceptibility was the stronger of the two variables. The ranking of the four conditions corresponded with predictions of hypnotic depth from the state theory of hypnosis, but the findings were not inconsistent with the non-state theory. The drawings of all regressed groups were more mature than the norms for the age of seven and the drawings of a group of seven year old children. O'Brien RM. Kramer CE. Chiglinsky MA. Stevens GE. Nunan LJ. Fritzo JA. Moral development examined through hypnotic and task motivated age regression. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 1977;19(4):209-13 Thirty 17-28 yr old volunteers who had scored above 8 on the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C, were randomly assigned to 3 groups (hypnosis, task motivation, and control). The 2 treatment groups were age regressed to the 1st grade. They were then examined through 5 moral dilemma stories to ascertain their level of functioning on L. Kohlberg's (1968) stage theory of moral development. The control group experienced the same examination without age regression. Results show that both treatment groups were at a significantly lower moral stage than the control group but that there was no significant difference between the 2 groups of age-regressed Subjects. In addition, it was found that a group of 10 actual 1st graders gave answers that were at a much lower level than those of the age-regressed Subjects. These results demonstrate cognitive age regression on Kohlberg's stages of moral development. They also suggest that task motivation situations are as efficient as hypnosis in producing this phenomenon. AGE / DEVELOPMENT 1994 Freyd, Jennifer J. (1994). Betrayal-trauma: Traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse. Ethics and Behavior, 4. Betrayal-trauma theory suggests that psychogenic amnesia is an adaptive response to childhood abuse. When a parent or other powerful figure violates a fundamental ethic of human relationships, victims may need to remain unaware of the trauma not to reduce suffering but rather to promote survival. Amnesia enables the child to maintain an attachment with a figure vital to survival, development, and thriving. Analysis of evolutionary pressures, mental modules, social cognitions, and developmental needs suggests that the degree to which the most fundamental human ethics are violated can influence the nature, form, processes, and responses to trauma. NOTES 1: NOTES: "A logical extension of this research direction, based on a strategy that has been very effective in cognitive neuroscience, would be to look for neuroanatomical underpinnings of the cognitive mechanisms implicated in dissociation. ... For instance, the ability to dissociate current experience may depend partly on representational structures that support spontaneous perceptual transformations of incoming events. One possible perceptual transformation that is amenable to scientific investigation, would be the creation of spatial representations in which the mental 'observer' is spatially distinct from the real body of that observer. Such a representation would fit patient descriptions of 'leaving their body' during a traumatic episode and viewing the scene as if from afar. Additionally one could investigate the role of mental recoding and restructuring during memory 'recovery' and psychotherapy" (pp. 19-20). 1970 Fromm, Erika (1970). Age regression with unexpected reappearance of a repressed childhood language. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 18, 79-88. Describes the case of a 26-yr-old, 3rd-generation Japanese-American who thought he knew no Japanese. When hypnotically age-regressed to levels below age 4, he spontaneously and unexpectedly spoke Japanese, while only English was spoken at the adult and age-regression levels above 4 yr. The psychodynamics of the S''s repression of the childhood language and questions pertaining to the nature and theory of age regression are discussed. (Spanish & German summaries) (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) ALCHOLOSM 1993 Eisen, Mitchell (1993). Assessing the hypnotizability of college students from addictive families. Contemporary Hypnosis, 10, 11-17. The present study examined the relation between hypnotizability and the report of growing up in an addictive family where one or both parents were addicted to drugs and/or alcohol. A sample of 113 college students (47 male, 66 female) were studied for measure of childhood abuse, addiction history, dissociation and hypnotizability. As predicted, subjects from an addictive family were more hypnotizable than subject from a nonaddictive family. However, no relation between family addiction and dissociation was secured. Whereas abuse was found to be related to dissociation, it was not related to hypnotizability. The findings are discussed in terms of the effects of child abuse and neglect on dissociation and hypnotizability as it relates to the addictive family. NOTES 1: Author reviews the literature in area of abuse and hypnotizability as well as dissociation. Subjects were unaware of purposes of the experiment when they volunteered. Of 113 Ss, 18% were reared in an addictive family; 13 Ss reported being abused, of whom 6 reported sexual abuse and seven physical abuse. Five of the 21 Ss who reported being reared in addictive families also reported being abused (3 physical, two sexual). Only one S reported both physical and sexual abuse. Used HGSHS:A, Children of Alcoholics Screening Test, and Dissociative Experiences Scale of Carlson and Putnam (1986). Those with addiction in the family had Harvard scale mean score of 8.05, compared to those who didn't have it with mean of 6.95. No significant effect was found for ABUSE or the interaction of ABUSE and family addiction. The abuse question was, "Before the age of 12 parent punishment of you resulted in your physical injury (bruises, scarring, broken bones, etc.). Second question was, "Before the age of 12, did you participate in sexual behaviors (either with or without coercion) with a much older person?" The Discussion thoroughly explores the possible reasons why their results differ from those of others. ALLERGY 1965