Quall, Penelope J.; Sheehan, Peter W. (1979). Capacity for absorption and relaxation during electromyograph biofeedback and no-feedback conditions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88 (6), 652-662.
The present research examined the relation between absorption capacity and relaxation during electromyograph biofeedback and no-feedback (instructions only) conditions. Sixteen high absorption and 16 low absorption female subjects underwent a biofeedback and no-feedback session with the order of conditions counterbalanced. For high absorption subjects in the first session, EMG reductions were greater during no- feedback than during biofeedback, although the performance of biofeedback subjects improved in the second session. For low absorption subjects, no differences in EMG reductions were apparent across experimental conditions. Postexperimental self-report data demonstrated differences between absorption groups in subjects’ state of arousal and quality of consciousness. It was concluded that for subjects with high capacity for absorbed attention, experimental conditions that allow for a withdrawal from the external environment are most conducive to relaxation, whereas for subjects with limited capacity for absorbed attention, conditions such as biofeedback that place an attentional demand on subjects may be preferable.
Spanos, Nicholas P.; Steggles, Shawn; Radtke-Bodorik, H. Lorraine; Rivers, Stephen M. (1979). Nonanalytic attending, hypnotic susceptibility, and psychological well-being in trained meditators and nonmeditators. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88 (1), 85-87.
Four groups of trained meditators differing in amount of meditation practice and a group of nonmeditators attended nonanalytically to a mantra in two meditation sessions. Subjects signaled intrusions into their attending, and were also assessed on several person variables. The four trained meditator groups differed from one another only in terms of self-esteem. When combined into a single group, meditators signaled fewer intrusions and reported “deeper” levels of meditating than nonmeditators. However, meditators and nonmeditators did not differ on hypnotic susceptibility, absorption, or indices of psychopathology.
1978
Bowers, Patricia G. (1978). Hypnotizability, creativity and the role of effortless experiencing. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 26, 184-202.
Creative people and highly hypnotizable people describe their experience of finding creative solutions or responding to hypnotic suggestions as “effortless.” It is suggested that receptiveness to subconscious work accounts for the experience of effortlessness in both tasks. An experiment using 32 high and low hypnotizable men and women was designed to explore the hypothesis that the aptitude for such effortless experiencing accounts for the relationship found between creativity and hypnotizability.
Analyses of variance indicate highly significant effects of level of hypnotizability on composite scores reflecting effortless experiencing of several tasks and creativity. Intercorrelations of these indices are about .60. As predicted, effortless experiencing accounts for much of the relationship between high versus low hypnotizability and composite creativity. The role of imagery vividness and of absorption in both hypnotizability and creativity were also explored.
Finke, R. A.; Macdonald, H. (1978). Two personality measures relating hypnotic susceptibility to absorption. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 26 (3), 178-183.
2 scales of involvement in absorbing experiences, developed independently by Tellegen (1976) and Swanson (1978), were compared with each other and with a group version of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1962). Significantly positive correlatons were obtained for all three comparisons. The results further confirm the relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and absorption, providing new evidence for the existence of stable individual differences in hypnotizability.
Schwartz, W. (1978). Time and context during hypnotic involvement. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 26 (4), 307-316.
A recent conceptualization of hypnosis suggests that hypnotized Ss should show a disruption in episodic memory which would reflect a diminished awareness of duration and sequence. Specifically, the predictions were that hypnotized Ss would exhibit less accurate estimates of duration, and less sequence in their recall of activities, than would nonhypnotized Ss. The empirical task consisted of giving Ss the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scaloe, Form C (Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1962), either with the induction (hypnosis condition), or without the induction (control condition). Prior to the termination of the scale, Ss were asked to recall the activities they had performed and the time that had elapsed since they began the scale. Hypnotized Ss (N = 10) were significantly less sequential in their recall of activities, and less accurate in their estimations of the passage of time, than were nonhypnotized Ss (N = 10). These results suggest that persons who respond to hypnosis are less concerned with the context which the world provides for their actions than are nonhypnotized controls.
1969
Gendlin, Eugene T. (1969). Focusing. Psychotherapy, 6 (1), 4-15.
NOTES 1:
This paper presents a therapeutic procedure that involves experiential focusing, described as a bodily method. The paper provides a step by step procedure that has been used in research. “First of all, the method involves a sharp and complete shift in direction. One must cease talking at oneself inside; one must ask: ‘What’s wrong?’ and then keep quiet, and refrain from answering oneself. It is understood that everyone knows a great deal about what is wrong…” (P. 4).
“Whenever the patient is unsure about what he has found (explaining or doubting) the way to deal with it is always again with a fresh start. One needn’t decide the verbal issues that arise. ‘Focus freshly on it instead, let it come freshly again’ – this is almost always the answer to whatever the issue now seems to be” (p. 6).
“In this experiential therapy, it is important that the therapist respond to what is directly felt even while it isn’t yet conceptually clear. What patients sense in focusing is often conceptually vague. The patient feels the felt meaning distinctly enough, but if he talks, he often begins by complaining that it isn’t possible to think about it clearly. ‘There’s something funny there, about the way I pull out of relationships … (He has talked about the problem before, but not about what is ‘funny’ here, he just focused and encountered that) … but I can’t describe it. It’s … ah … funny, there.’ The therapist must be able to talk to that, even without knowing what it is: ‘You got something there, but you don’t know what it is, yet. It’s a funny something that you find, right there in how you pull out'” (pp. 6-7).
The theory postulates ‘felt meaning’ as a body sense of the many complexities of a problem, and experiential effect as a kind of body resolution of a problem. Focusing is viewed as “one essential of psychotherapy, desensitization, Jungian imagery, hypnotherapy, free association, and other methods” (p. 9). “Experiential focusing makes specific and synthesizes the steps of those therapeutic methods which systematically seek to engender body change process” (p. 10).
1968
Gendlin, Eugene T. (1968). The experiential response. In Hammer, E. F. (Ed.), Use of interpretation in treatment: Technique and art (pp. 208-227). New York: Grune & Stratton.
NOTES 1:
The author poses the question, “How can a therapist’s response have a concrete experiential effect in the individual?” He notes that therapists do not deal with clear emotions but with more complex experiencing. “What we feel is not an internal object (an ‘affective state’ as something only inside us), but a felt sense of a whole situation – how we are in that situation, what we bring about, perceive, and feel we are up against” (p. 209). “Therefore, such a felt sense isn’t something only felt, but is also intellectual” (p. 209). The therapist should draw the patient’s attention to the complexity of experiencing. “Only as the client ‘focuses’ on his felt meaning, can it shift, and only from it can further facets emerge. Some individuals come into psychotherapy with a great ability to engage in this experiential ‘focusing'(Gendlin, 1968), while with others the therapist must struggle to draw their attention again and again to the felt sense they concretely have. Sometimes the client acts as though he had no idea that he has access to anything but his words” (p. 211). The therapy must remain experiential. “A therapeutic response always aims at the client’s own directly-felt sense of what he is talking about” (p. 213).
1965
Field, Peter B. (1965). An inventory scale of hypnotic depth. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13, 238-249. (Abstracted in American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 1966, 1, 86)
An inventory of 300 items describing subjective experiences during hypnosis was administered to 102 students after they had wakened from hypnosis. The 38 items that correlated best with a standard measure of hypnotic susceptibility are proposed as an inventory measure of hypnotic depth. Items dealing with absorption and unawareness, automaticity and compulsion, and discontinuity from normal experience correlated best with the criterion, while items dealing with conscious motivation to enter hypnosis, feelings of surface compliance with suggestions, and unusual bodily sensations showed generally weaker relationships to the hypnotizability criterion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1959
Bowers, Margaretta K. (1959). Friend or traitor? Hypnosis in the service of religion. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 7 (4), 205-215.
NOTES 1:
Hypnosis may potentiate religious experiences like prayer and worship, where hypnosis meets the world of inner reality. In the first to fourth centuries, Jewish mystics alluded to depth of mind in religious experience, but the idea of oneness with God “cannot be accepted as a healthy psychological concept” (p. 207).
“We have the possibility of understanding prayer and worship as an intrapsychic phenomenon, as a communication with one’s total being. Once the premise of the indwellingness of God can be accepted as a psycholigical [sic] entity, then we can understand prayer as being a total response of the psychic life of the individual in order that he can understand the feelings of wholeness, self-confidence, and self-esteem in himself, and further, how this can be aided by hypnotic techniques” (p. 207).
The author interprets the 13th Century mystic’s words, ‘the divine will, dresses or cloaks itself in the will of the devout,’ as similar to hypnosis, in which a state “may occur where the patient loses his awareness of the separateness of himself and the hypnotist so that the hypnotist’s voice may be felt as his own voice” (p. 208). This is all right as long as awareness of separateness is re-established when the person comes out of the hypnotic or religious experience.
The religious mystic also may use autohypnosis “to achieve a greater experiencing of God and a heightened religious experience. Such a state likewise produces an ecstasy. Such ecstasy is sometimes present in religious conversion experiences as well. This ecstasy is healthy if the separateness and integrity of God and Man are kept separate” (p. 209). The author describes a phenomenon in which a priest who leads a deeply devotional religious service may feel a loss of a sense of self afterward, complaining of great fatigue and inability or unwillingness to relate to people. The same post-devotional emptiness and depression sometimes occurs among parishioners.
A psychoanalytically oriented case study of misdirected religious belief, amplified by religious service induced trance, is presented.
ASTHMA
Ewer TC, Stewart DE Improvement in bronchial hyper-responsiveness in patients with moderate asthma after treatment with a hypnotic technique: a randomised controlled trial BMJ Clinical Research Edition. 1986;293(6555):1129-32 A prospective, randomised, single blind, and controlled trial of a hypnotic technique was undertaken in 39 adults with mild to moderate asthma graded for low and high susceptibility to hypnosis. After a six week course of hypnotherapy 12 patients with a high susceptibility score showed a 74.9% improvement (p less than 0.01) in the degree of bronchial hyper-responsiveness to a standardised methacholine challenge test. Daily home recordings of symptoms improved by 41% (p less than 0.01), peak expiratory flow rates improved by 5.5% ( p less than 0.01), and use of bronchodilators decreased by 26.2% (p less than 0.05). The improvement in bronchial hyper-reactivity occurred without a change in subjective appreciation of the degree of bronchoconstriction. A control group of 17 patients and 10 patients undergoing treatment with low susceptibility to hypnosis had no change in either bronchial hyper-responsiveness or any of the symptoms recorded at home. This study shows the efficacy of a hypnotic technique in adult asthmatics who are moderately to highly susceptible to hypnosis.
Kohen DP Relaxation-mental imagery (self-hypnosis) for childhood asthma: behavioral outcomes in a prospective, controlled study Hypnos 1995 Sep;22(3):132-44 Twenty-eight (28) 7-12 yr old children entered a controlled study of the effects of self-hypnosis on asthma. Asthma belief and behavioural inventories were collected before, and at one and two yrs after intervention. Asthma diaries were kept daily and mailed monthly. Subjects were randomly assigned to (1) Experimental (self-hypnosis), (2) Waking suggestion (no Hypnosis), (3) attention placebo (no hypnosis or asthma discussion), or (4) traditional control groups. Twenty four (24) completed 1 month follow-up, 16 completed 6 months, and 13 completed 2 yrs. Results included fewer Emergency Room visits in the experimental group (p greater than 0.05); (2) less school missed in the experimental group compared to the traditional controlled group (p greater than 0.001) and to the waking suggestion group (p greater than 0.005); (3) no differences in psychological evaluations between groups, and (4) surprising findings regarding hypnotic and hypnotic-like experiences among subjects.
Maher-Loughnan GP, McDonald M, Mason AA, Fry L Controlled trial of hypnosis in the symptomatic treatment of asthma BMJ 1962; ii: 371-6 Philipp RL, Wilde GJS, Day JH Suggestion and relaxation in asthmatics J Psychom Res 1972; 16: 193-204
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Anbar, Ron (2002, Dec 3). Hypnosis in pediatrics: applications at a pediatric pulmonary center.. BMC Pediatrics, 2 (1), 11-18.
BACKGROUND: This report describes the utility of hypnosis for patients who presented to a Pediatric Pulmonary Center over a 30 month period.
METHODS: Hypnotherapy was offered to 303 patients from May 1, 1998 – October 31, 2000. Patients offered hypnotherapy included those thought to have pulmonary symptoms due to psychological issues, discomfort due to medications, or fear of procedures. Improvement in symptoms following hypnosis was observed by the pulmonologist for most patients with habit cough and conversion reaction. Improvement of other conditions for which hypnosis was used was gauged based on patients”” subjective evaluations.
RESULTS: Hypnotherapy was associated with improvement in 80% of patients with persistent asthma, chest pain/pressure, habit cough, hyperventilation, shortness of breath, sighing, and vocal cord dysfunction. When improvement was reported, in some cases symptoms resolved immediately after hypnotherapy was first employed. For the others improvement was achieved after hypnosis was used for a few weeks. No patients”” symptoms worsened and no new symptoms emerged following hypnotherapy.
CONCLUSIONS: Patients described in this report were unlikely to have achieved rapid improvement in their symptoms without the use of hypnotherapy. Therefore, hypnotherapy can be an important complementary therapy for patients in a pediatric practice.
NOTES 1:
Full text is available free, on-line, through PubMed
1996
Kohen, Daniel (1996). Relaxation/mental imagery (self-hypnosis) for childhood asthma: Behavioural outcomes in a prospective, controlled study. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 24 (1), 12-28.
Twenty-eight 7-12-year-old children entered a controlled study of the effects of self-hypnosis on asthma. Asthma belief and behavioural inventories were collected before, and at one and two years after intervention. Asthma diaries were kept daily and mailed monthly. Subjects were randomly assigned to (a) experimental (self- hypnosis), (b) waking suggestion (no hypnosis), (c) attention placebo (no hypnosis or asthma discussion), or (d) traditional control groups. Twenty-four completed one-month follow-up, 16 completed six months, and 13 completed two years. Results included: (a) fewer emergency room visits in the experimental group (p<0.05); (b)less school missed in the experimental group compared to the traditional control group (p<0.001) and to the waking suggestion group (p<0.005); (c) no differences in psychological evaluations between groups; and (d) surprising findings regarding hypnotic and hypnotic-like experiences among subjects 1992 Isenberg, S. A.; Lehrer, P. M.; Hochran, S. (1992). The effects of suggestions and emotional arousal on pulmonary functions in asthma: A review and a hypothesis regarding verbal mediation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 54, 192-216. This paper reviews the empirical literature on the relation between asthma, suggestion, and emotion, and proposes the hypothesis that these effects are mediated parasympathetically. The literature indicates that, among asthmatics, suggestion can produce both bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation, and that stress can produce bronchoconstriction. The proportion of asthmatic subjects showing bronchoconstriction to both suggestion and stress averages 35%-40% across studies, but, because of methodological considerations, might be conservatively estimated as closer to 20%. The effect is smaller for suggestion of bronchodilation, and is very short-lived among nonasthmatics. No clear connection has been found between these responses and such subject variables as age, gender, asthma severity, atopy, or method of pulmonary assessment, although some nonsignificant tendencies appear. Most studies in this literature used small n''s and did not systematically examine various somatic, environmental, and demographic factors that could influence results. A hypothesis is presented regarding vagal mediation of psychological effects on the airways, as well as possible alternative mechanisms, and recommendations for future research to evaluate these hypotheses. Isenberg, S. A.; Lehrer, P. M.; Hochron, S. (1992). The effects of suggestion on airways of asthmatic subjects breathing room air as a suggested bronchoconstrictor and bronchodilator. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 36, 769-776. The Thirty-three asthmatic subjects were told they were receiving, alternately, an inhaled bronchoconstrictor and inhaled bronchodilator, although they actually were only breathing room air. No subjects showed suggestion-produced effects on FEV1, although two (of the 19 on whom FEF50 was measured) showed effects of greater than 20% on measures of maximal midexpiratory flow. The incidence of the effect is smaller than reported previously, possibly because some subjects in previous studies inhaled saline, a mild bronchoconstrictor, and reversal of effect was not required for classification as a reactor. Higher percentages of subjects in this study showed decreased MMEF in response to the ''bronchoconstrictor'', but this appeared to reflect fatigue rather than suggestion effects. However, the fact that the effect occurred in a relatively non-effort-dependent measure suggests that real changes occurred in bronchial caliber, not just in test effort. Suggestion had a significant effect on perception of bronchial changes, but the correlation between actual and perceived changes was minimal. There was an increase in FVC prior to administration of the ''bronchoconstrictor'', possibly reflecting a preparatory response to the expected drug. Correlations among self-report variables suggested the existence of three personality dimensions among our population related to suggestion and asthma: cognitive susceptibility to suggestion of bronchial change; feeling of physical vulnerability; and anxiety. However, there was no significant relationship between airway response to suggested changes and hypnotic susceptibility, as measured by the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. 2002 Anbar, Ron (2002, Dec 3). Hypnosis in pediatrics: applications at a pediatric pulmonary center.. BMC Pediatrics, 2 (1), 11-18. BACKGROUND: This report describes the utility of hypnosis for patients who presented to a Pediatric Pulmonary Center over a 30 month period. METHODS: Hypnotherapy was offered to 303 patients from May 1, 1998 - October 31, 2000. Patients offered hypnotherapy included those thought to have pulmonary symptoms due to psychological issues, discomfort due to medications, or fear of procedures. Improvement in symptoms following hypnosis was observed by the pulmonologist for most patients with habit cough and conversion reaction. Improvement of other conditions for which hypnosis was used was gauged based on patients'''' subjective evaluations. RESULTS: Hypnotherapy was associated with improvement in 80% of patients with persistent asthma, chest pain/pressure, habit cough, hyperventilation, shortness of breath, sighing, and vocal cord dysfunction. When improvement was reported, in some cases symptoms resolved immediately after hypnotherapy was first employed. For the others improvement was achieved after hypnosis was used for a few weeks. No patients'''' symptoms worsened and no new symptoms emerged following hypnotherapy. CONCLUSIONS: Patients described in this report were unlikely to have achieved rapid improvement in their symptoms without the use of hypnotherapy. Therefore, hypnotherapy can be an important complementary therapy for patients in a pediatric practice. NOTES 1: Full text is available free, on-line, through PubMed 1996 Kohen, Daniel (1996). Relaxation/mental imagery (self-hypnosis) for childhood asthma: Behavioural outcomes in a prospective, controlled study. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 24 (1), 12-28. Twenty-eight 7-12-year-old children entered a controlled study of the effects of self-hypnosis on asthma. Asthma belief and behavioural inventories were collected before, and at one and two years after intervention. Asthma diaries were kept daily and mailed monthly. Subjects were randomly assigned to (a) experimental (self- hypnosis), (b) waking suggestion (no hypnosis), (c) attention placebo (no hypnosis or asthma discussion), or (d) traditional control groups. Twenty-four completed one-month follow-up, 16 completed six months, and 13 completed two years. Results included: (a) fewer emergency room visits in the experimental group (p<0.05); (b)less school missed in the experimental group compared to the traditional control group (p<0.001) and to the waking suggestion group (p<0.005); (c) no differences in psychological evaluations between groups; and (d) surprising findings regarding hypnotic and hypnotic-like experiences among subjects. 1992 Isenberg, S. A.; Lehrer, P. M.; Hochran, S. (1992). The effects of suggestions and emotional arousal on pulmonary functions in asthma: A review and a hypothesis regarding verbal mediation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 54, 192-216. This paper reviews the empirical literature on the relation between asthma, suggestion, and emotion, and proposes the hypothesis that these effects are mediated parasympathetically. The literature indicates that, among asthmatics, suggestion can produce both bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation, and that stress can produce bronchoconstriction. The proportion of asthmatic subjects showing bronchoconstriction to both suggestion and stress averages 35%-40% across studies, but, because of methodological considerations, might be conservatively estimated as closer to 20%. The effect is smaller for suggestion of bronchodilation, and is very short-lived among nonasthmatics. No clear connection has been found between these responses and such subject variables as age, gender, asthma severity, atopy, or method of pulmonary assessment, although some nonsignificant tendencies appear. Most studies in this literature used small n''s and did not systematically examine various somatic, environmental, and demographic factors that could influence results. A hypothesis is presented regarding vagal mediation of psychological effects on the airways, as well as possible alternative mechanisms, and recommendations for future research to evaluate these hypotheses. Isenberg, S. A.; Lehrer, P. M.; Hochron, S. (1992). The effects of suggestion on airways of asthmatic subjects breathing room air as a suggested bronchoconstrictor and bronchodilator. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 36, 769-776. Thirty-three asthmatic subjects were told they were receiving, alternately, an inhaled bronchoconstrictor and inhaled bronchodilator, although they actually were only breathing room air. No subjects showed suggestion-produced effects on FEV1, although two (of the 19 on whom FEF50 was measured) showed effects of greater than 20% on measures of maximal midexpiratory flow. The incidence of the effect is smaller than reported previously, possibly because some subjects in previous studies inhaled saline, a mild bronchoconstrictor, and reversal of effect was not required for classification as a reactor. Higher percentages of subjects in this study showed decreased MMEF in response to the ''bronchoconstrictor'', but this appeared to reflect fatigue rather than suggestion effects. However, the fact that the effect occurred in a relatively non-effort-dependent measure suggests that real changes occurred in bronchial caliber, not just in test effort. Suggestion had a significant effect on perception of bronchial changes, but the correlation between actual and perceived changes was minimal. There was an increase in FVC prior to administration of the ''bronchoconstrictor'', possibly reflecting a preparatory response to the expected drug. Correlations among self-report variables suggested the existence of three personality dimensions among our population related to suggestion and asthma: cognitive susceptibility to suggestion of bronchial change; feeling of physical vulnerability; and anxiety. However, there was no significant relationship between airway response to suggested changes and hypnotic susceptibility, as measured by the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. 1991 Madrid AD, Barnes SH. (1991, Oct). A hypnotic protocol for eliciting physical changes through suggestions [Abstract]. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 34 (2), 122-128. We employed brief hypnotherapy to effect physical changes in patients suffering from medical disorders including allergies, rectal bleeding, systemic lupus, hyperemesis, headache, asthma, and chronic pain. We present, in language appropriate to the individual patient, considerations and suggestions to effect the release of healing biochemicals. Ideomotor signals indicated the patient''s awareness of the healing. We hypothesize that the technique triggered novel state-dependent memory, learning and behavior. Madrid, Antonio D.; Barnes, Susan v.d.H. (1991). A hypnotic protocol for eliciting physical changes through suggestions of biochemical responses. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 122-128. We employed brief hypnotherapy to effect physical changes in patients suffering from medical disorders including allergies, rectal bleeding, systemic lupus, hyperemesis, headache, asthma, and chronic pain. We present, in language appropriate to the individual patient, considerations and suggestions to effect the release of healing biochemicals. Ideomotor signals indicated the patient's awareness of the healing. We hypothesize that the technique triggered novel state-dependent memory, learning, and behavior. NOTES 1: They hypothesize that the technique they use triggers novel state-dependent memory, learning, and behavior (See for example Rossi, 1987, and Rossi & Cheek, 1988). Hypnotic Protocol: "1. Tell the patient that he can heal himself by allowing his body to supply its own biochemicals needed to make him well. If a specific biochemical is known, such as cortisone or endorphins, name it. "2. Hypnotize the patient. Resistant or hard to hypnotize patients need not be deeply hypnotized because the patients, using this protocol, will automatically go into trance while accomplishing the next task of accessing and using ideomotor signals (Erickson, 1980; Rossi & Cheek, 1988). "3. Tell the patient that his index finger will automatically and involuntarily twitch and float when his body releases the biochemicals he needs. This ideomotor response (Rossi & Cheek, 1988) is the sole physical response required of the patient. Rossi hypothesizes that the ideomotor response correlates with biochemical changes (Rossi & Cheek, 1988). "4. Next, ask the patient to consider some things (as described below). Present the considerations one after another until one of them triggers the ideomotor response. "5. In some instances, ask the patient to practice on his own. Many patients who have dramatic emotional reactions during or at the completion of the task may not need to practice on their own" (p. 123). They present several 'considerations' to the patient, one after the other, tailored to the patient's specific case, until his finger twitches or floats, indicating a biochemical response. For example, the following 'considerations' have been used: "1. Psychodynamic: 'Consider that you are not blamed for anything; that you are in fact perfect just the way you are; that you are loved by those you care about.' 'Consider that you can forgive whoever needs forgiving for hurting you.' 'Consider that there are no longer any threats; everything is better; everything is as it used to be.' "2. Autosuggestion: 'Tell your body to heal. It knows what to do; so ask it to do it.' 'Tell your adrenal glands to produce the steroids that your body needs.' 'Allow a glowing light to permeate that injured back, filling it with healing energy.' "3. Incompatible responses: 'Cover yourself with a cool breeze, cooling the injured leg.' 'Imagine your back getting slack and limp and relaxed.' 'Imagine your stomach lining becoming smooth and moving with easy, ocean-like waves.' "4. Emotion calling: 'Consider yourself feeling very happy with everything, for no reason at all.' 'Consider yourself getting angry at someone--your mother, your wife (husband), your boss, your lawyer.' "5. Bargaining: 'Tell yourself that you will heal if you agree to stay away from that job.' 'Tell yourself you will heal by allowing your right arm to begin to hurt when you are over- exerting yourself.' 'Tell yourself that you will heal in exchange for something else, not so serious, to replace this disease and to serve the same function'" (pp. 123-124). They present seven cases involving, respectively, allergies, rectal bleeding, systemic lupus, hyperemesis of pregnancy, adult onset asthma, chronic pain, and cluster headaches. Two cases were particularly interesting because they represented patients who did not respond initially. Their procedure involves reframing the state or emotion originally associated with the onset of disease using considerations, and then giving a suggestion that it is within the power of the person, rather than factors outside, to heal the body. First they instruct the patient that the body can heal itself; then they give the list of suggestions for the patient to consider, persisting with different considerations until they get an ideomotor response. Incorporation of the patient's psychodynamic issues appears to be very important. The authors regard it as unimportant if the patient cannot by hypnotized; "As Cheek (Cheek & LeCron, 1968; Rossi & Cheek, 1988) points out, the patient's inability to be hypnotized may be synonymous with his disease. It is actually beneficial if the patient cannot achieve ideomotor responses at first because both he and the therapist then trust the validity of the response when it does occur after the appropriate consideration" (p. 127). 1989 Murphy, A. I.; Lehrer, P. M.; Karlin, R.; Swartzman, L.; Hochron, S.; McCann, B. (1989). Hypnotic susceptibility and its relationship to outcome in the behavioral treatment of asthma: Some preliminary data. Psychological Reports, 65, 691-698. NOTES 1: Twelve subjects from an experiment on relaxation therapy for asthma were given the Harvard. Hypnotizability was positively correlated, at a borderline significance, with improvement in the methacholine challenge test, a measure of asthma severity. Performance on the amnesia item of the Harvard was correlated with improvement in self- reported symptoms of asthma. 1987 Pastorello, E. A. (1987). The role of suggestion in asthma. I. Effects of inactive solution on bronchial reactivity under bronchoconstrictor or bronchodilator suggestion. Annals of Allergy, 59, 336-338. Twenty-eight Ss affected by perennial asthma were selected in order to investigate the possibility of inducing or relieving an asthmatic attack by means of suggestion. 25 were positive to a methacholine challenge test, and among them, 11 reacted to an ultrasonic nebulized distilled water test. The effect of suggestion on airway response was assessed by 8 inhalations of normal saline at 32 degrees Centigrade alternately presented as a bronchoconstrictor or as a bronchodilator drug. 8 inhalations of the same diluent without any psychic stimulus were used as a control test. 7 patients reacted with bronchoconstriction to both positive and negative suggestion and to the control test. Further, this group of patients showed a lower methacholine PD10 when compared with the other Ss. In this study, the effects of suggestion on bronchial reactivity were not observed and bronchoconstriction belonged to an individual hyperactivity of the airways. 1979 Di Piano, Frank A.; Salzberg, H. C. (1979). Clinical applications of hypnosis to three psychosomatic disorders. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 1223-1235. Studies of hypnosis in the treatment of skin disorders, headaches, and asthma were reviewed in terms of outcomes and methodological soundness. Some studies focused on changing physiological functions, others on increasing insight in their patients, and still others on altering patients' perceptions of their symptoms. Methodological weaknesses included lack of control groups, nonrandom assignment of patients to treatment conditions, and confounding of treatment effects or lack of control for placebo effects. Additional weaknesses centered around the use of single outcome measures and the failure to assess the specific roles of mediating variables. Most of the studies reviewed showed positive treatment effects. However, there is equivocal evidence that hypnosis can directly influence autonomic functioning. Hypnosis may be valuable in facilitating one's capacity to gain insight into how one's symptoms developed and are maintained. In addition, hypnotic procedures have resulted in some success when used to indirectly alleviate symptoms by altering how individuals perceive their disorders and how these disorders affect their lives. 1978 15 asthmatic and 19 non-asthmatic Ss were administered the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (Shor & E. Orne, 1962) and accordingly assigned to one of three susceptibility groups -- low, medium, or high. Subsequently, all Ss were exposed to a hypnotically suggested asthma experience. Subjective and physiological measures of respiratory efficiency were administered before, during, and after the hypnotically suggested asthma experience. Ss did respond significantly differently in these three conditions, but the physiological measures did not reveal typical asthma physiological patterns. High and medium susceptible Ss were ostensibly convinced that they "experienced" asthma, but the low susceptible Ss were uniformly unimpressed. One of the most noteworthy findings was that Ss' ability to respond differentially (according to the asthma suggestions) was enhanced by greater susceptibility to hypnosis yet not "enhanced" by their history of previous asthma. 1975 Retrospective analysis of 121 asthmatic patients who were treated by hypnotherapy. Subjects were first broken down into one of three possible groups: "light," "medium," or "deep," according to the depth of trance typically achieved. Hypnoidal states were included in the light trance group and somnambulistic state in the deep trance. All sessions concentrated on suggesting physical and mental relaxation since we know this is one of the causes of the appearance of the "asthma attack." The actual wording varied however, and this involved discussion under hypnosis, of the main personalities of the environment, fears, failures, aims, hopes and frustrations. Post-hypnotic suggestions of continued relaxation and ability to cope with the various situations of life were given in all the cases. Auto-hypnosis was taught to enable the patient to reinforce the above suggestions and to remain in or selectively achieve a relaxed state. Results were classified into four different categories: "excellent," "good," "poor," and "nil." It was found that those patients who experienced a "high" trance depth were more likely to show excellent improvement than those who were measured as "medium" or "low" trance subjects 1972 Alexander, A. Barney; Miklich, Donald; & Hershkoff, Helen (1972, September-October). The immediate effects of systematic relaxation training on peak expiratory flow rates in asthmatic children . Psychosomatic Medicine, 34 (5), 388-393. Clinical experience has often suggested that having asthmatic patients sit quietly and/or relax during asthma attacks is helpful. The present study was an attempt to provide a controlled experimental demonstration of the effect of systematic relaxation on peak expiratory flow rate in asthmatic children. Eighteen male and 18 female asthmatic children were divided into two groups matched for mean age, sex composition and asthma severity. One group of subjects underwent three sessions of modified jacobsonian systematic relaxation training, while the second group sat quietly for three sessions. Peak expiratory flow rate measures were obtained prior to and following each session. It was found that relaxation ''subjects manifested a significant mean increase in peak expiratory flow rate over sessions compared to a nonsignificant mean peak expiratory flow decrease for control subjects. It was suggested that these results have important implications both for the clinical treatment and the understanding of bronchial asthma. 1971 Moorefield, C. W. (1971). The use of hypnosis and behavior therapy in asthma. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 13, 162-163. Nine patients with asthma were treated with hypnosis and behavior therapy. All of these patients showed subjective improvement to a rather marked degree, except for one patient who has had three slight attacks of asthma since the onset of her treatment. These patients have been followed from eight to approximately 24 months. The results so far have been rather encouraging and the author believes this form of treatment will prove to be of benefit in the treatment of asthma and possibly many other related conditions. Luparello, Thomas; Leist,Nancy ; Laurie, Cary; Sweet, Pauline (1970, September-October). The interaction of psychologic stimuli and pharmacologic agents on airway reactivity in asthmatic subjects. Psychosomatic Medicine, 32 (5), 509-513. Two bronchoactive substances, isoproterenol and carbachol were presented by inhalation to 20 asthmatic subjects in a double blind study. Each drug was given under two conditions: in one case, the subject was told the drug was a bronchodilator; in the other, he was told it was a bronchoconstrictor. The bronchodilator effect of isoproterenol was greater when the subject was told it was a bronchodilator than when told it was a bronchoconstrictor. Similarly, the bronchoconstricting effect of carbachol was greater when the subject was told it was a bronchoconstrictor than when told it was a bronchodilator. Maher-Loughnan, G. P. (1970). Hypnosis and auto-hypnosis for the treatment of asthma. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 18 (1), 1-14. Conducted 2 controlled studies into the use of hypnosis in 252 asthma patients. Several different control procedures were used. Methods and results were summarized, and the same conclusion was reached: That hypnosis supplemented by autohypnosis was significantly more effective than control procedures. An outline is given of details of treatment methods. A current analysis of Ss involving up to 6 yr. of follow-up, is presented to provide a working guide to the regime in regular practice. To be fully effective hypnosis should be employed before steroids are started. Steroid-dependent asthma is rarely totally relieved by hypnotherapy. (Spanish & German summaries) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) 1969 Chong, Tong Mun (1969, September). The value of hypnotherapy as an adjunct in the treatment of bronchial asthma. Singapore Medical Journal, 10 (3), 182-186 [Introductory paragraphs] Bronchial asthma is a disorder characterised by recurrent spontaneous attacks of dyspnea and wheezing, and remissions either spontaneously or as a result of treatment. Two problems clearly exist in the treatment of bronchial asthma, (1) Treatment of acute attacks and (2) Prevention of future attacks. Hypnotism has been used in the treatment of diseases for hundreds if not thousands of years. Success was claimed for the hypnotic treatment of asthma about 60 years ago by Gerrish (1909). Varying reports have appeared in literature about the efficacy of hypnotherapy. Marchesi (1949), Magonet (1955), Asher (!956), Stewart (1957), Fry (1957), Ambrose and Newbo!d (1958), Diamond (1959), Meares (1960), Edwards (1960), Sinclair-Gieben (1960), Maher-Loughnan et al (1962), Chong (1964, 1965, 1966, !968), Maher-Loughnan (1965), McLean (1965), Houghton (1967), British Tuberculous Association (1968). Most authors used various degrees of psychotherapy, and believed that psychotherapy is an essential part of the treatment. However, Maher-Loughnan et al in a controlled study, using only symptom-removal suggestions, found that hypnosis is of value in the symptomatic treatment of asthma. Sinclair-Gieben (1960) reported a case of Status Asthmaticus resistant to all physical therapy and as a final resort, hypnosis was tried and found to cut short the attack instantaneously. Here also only symptom-removal suggestion had been used. CONCLUSION: Hypnotherapy is of value as an adjunct in the prevention of future attacks of asthma. It has also been shown to be a useful adjunct in other branches of medicine by the author elsewhere. Mun, Chong Tong (1969). The value of hypnotherapy as an adjunct in the treatment of bronchial asthma. Singapore Medical Journal, 10, 182-186. [Introductory paragraphs] Bronchial asthma is a disorder characterised by recurrent spontaneous attacks of dyspnea and wheezing, and remissions either spontaneously or as a result of treatment. Two problems clearly exist in the treatment of bronchial asthma, (1) Treatment of acute attacks and (2) Prevention of future attacks. Hypnotism has been used in the treatment of diseases for hundreds if not thousands of years. Success was claimed for the hypnotic treatment of asthma about 60 years ago by Gerrish (1909). Varying reports have appeared in literature about the efficacy of hypnotherapy. Marchesi (1949), Magonet (1955), Asher (!956), Stewart (1957), Fry (1957), Ambrose and Newbo!d (1958), Diamond (1959), Meares (1960), Edwards (1960), Sinclair-Gieben (1960), Maher-Loughnan et al (1962), Chong (1964, 1965, 1966, !968), Maher-Loughnan (1965), McLean (1965), Houghton (1967), British Tuberculous Association (1968). Most authors used various degrees of psychotherapy, and believed that psychotherapy is an essential part of the treatment. However, Maher-Loughnan et al in a controlled study, using only symptom-removal suggestions, found that hypnosis is of value in the symptomatic treatment of asthma. Sinclair-Gieben (1960) reported a case of Status Asthmaticus resistant to all physical therapy and as a final resort, hypnosis was tried and found to cut short the attack instantaneously. Here also only symptom-removal suggestion had been used. CONCLUSION Hypnotherapy is of value as an adjunct in the prevention of future attacks of asthma. It has also been shown to be a useful adjunct in other branches of medicine by the author elsewhere. 1968 British Tuberculosis Association (1968). Hypnosis for asthma: A controlled trial: A report to the research committee of the British Tuberculosis Association. British Medical Journal, 71-76. An investigation of hypnosis in asthma was made among patients aged 10 to 60 years with paroxysmal attacks of wheezing or tight chest capable of relief by bronchodilators. One group of patients was given hypnosis monthly and used autohypnosis daily for one year. Comparisons were made with a control group prescribed a specially devised set of breathing exercises aimed at progressive relaxation. Treatment was randomly allocated and patients were treated by physicians in nine centres. Results were assessed by daily diary recordings of wheezing and the use of bronchodilators, and by monthly recordings of F.E.V. and vital capacity. At the end of the year independent clinical assessments were made by physicians unaware of the patients'' treatment. There were 252 patients (127 hypnosis and 125 controls) accepted for analysis, but a number of them did not continue the prescribed treatment for the whole year: 28 hypnosis and 22 control patients failed to cooperate, left the district, or had family problems; one hypnosis and one control patient died. Seven hypnosis and 17 control patients were withdrawn as treatment failures, the difference between the two groups being statistically significant. As judged by analyses based on the daily " score " of wheezing recorded in patients'' diaries, by the number of times bronchodilators were used, and by independent clinical assessors, both treatment groups showed some improvement. Among men the as-sessments of wheezing score and use of bronchodilators showed similar improvement in the two treatment groups; among women, however, those treated by hypnosis showed improvement similar to that observed in the men, but those given breathing exercises made much less progress, the difference between the two treatment groups reaching statistical significance. Changes in F E.V. and V.C. between the control and hypnosis groups were closely similar. Independent clinical assessors considered the asthma to be " much better " in 59% of the hypnosis group and in 43% of the control group, the difference being significant. There was little difference between the sexes. Physicians with previous experience of hypnosis obtained significantly better results than did those without such experience. 1959 Diamond, H. H. (1959). Hypnosis in Children: The Complete Cure of Forty Cases of Asthma. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 1, 124-129. NOTES 1: This paper was originally presented by the physician, an instructor at George Washington University Medical School, at the First Annual Meeting of the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis in 1958. He treated 55 cases, beginning in 1954, with 40 having complete remission. He gives 3 case histories where early childhood experiences gave rise to the asthma, and the symptoms were quickly relieved when the repressed material was reviewed by the patient. ATTITUDES 2002 Sapp, Marty (2002). Implications of Barber's Three Dimensional Theory of Hypnosis [Abstract]. Sleep and Hypnosis, 4 (2), 70-76. Recently, Barber has presented a three dimensional paradigm of hypnosis. He proposed that there are three types of hypnosis clients- the fantasy-prone, amnesic-prone, and positively-set. This paper discusses the major theoretical implications of this new paradigm, and, if Barber is correct, his new theory should bridge a gap between the special process (state) and nonstate theorists. Finally, only research will determine if Barber''s new theory will actually unify the previous disagreements between the state and nonstate theorists.