Following two surgical operations under hypnotic anesthesia, it was possible, during subsequent recall under hypnosis, to elicit a representation of the past operative experience. It would seem that under hypnosis there is a persistence of the perception of nociceptive information and of its recognition as such by the subject. From an analysis of these two experiments in recall, it is possible to formulate several hypotheses concerning the psychological processes involved in hypnotic analgesia. In consequence of an affective relationship, in which the hypnotist’s word assumes a special importance for the subject, the latter has recourse to two kinds of mechanism: a) internal (assimilation to an analogous sensation, not, however, registered as dangerous– rationalization); and b) external (total compliance with the interpretations proposed by the hypnotist), which lead to a qualitative transformation of nociceptive information, as also the inhibition of the behavioral manifestations normally associated with a painful stimulus
Novaco, Raymond W. (1977). Stress inoculation: A cognitive therapy for anger and its application to a case of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45 (4), 600-8.
Clinical interventions for anger disorders have been scarcely addressed in both theory and research in psychotherapy. The continued development of a cognitive behavior therapy approach to anger management is presented along with the results of its application to a hospitalized depressive with severe anger problems. The treatment approach follows a procedure called “stress inoculation,” which consists of three basic stages: cognitive preparation, skill acquisition and rehearsal, and application practice. The relationship between anger and depression is discussed.
Pelletier, K. R.; Peper, E. (1977). Developing a biofeedback model: Alpha EEG feedback as a means for pain control. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 25, 361-371.
3 adept meditators voluntarily inserted steel needles into their bodies while physiological measures (EEG, EMG, GSR, EKG, and respiration) were recorded. Although each adept used a different passive attention technique, none reported pain. During the insertion, 2 of the 3 Ss increased their alpha EEG activity. The role of alpha EEG and its relationship to pain control is discussed.
NOTES
The three adepts studied were: (1) RCT, a 34 yr old Ecuadorian who had “demonstrated control over pain by placing bicycle spokes through his body, being suspended from hooks inserted under his shoulder blades, and walking through fire — all without reported pain or observed damage to his skin;” (2) JSL, a 31 yr old Korean karate expert, who “suspended a 25-pound bucket of water from a sharpened spoke placed through a fold of skin on his forearm;” and (3) JS, a 50-yr old Dutch meditator who had “demonstrated pain and bleeding contol” (pp. 363-365). “RCT, JSL, and JS each remarked that pain is principally fear of and attention to pain, and they maintained that anyone can learn to control pain through relaxation and passive attention” (p. 367). Both JS and RCT had increased alpha EEG activity during piercing, whereas JSL showed no increase. The authors suggest that “the karate expert practiced a very focused meditation, during which he mentally saw and felt the ki energy as a point, while RCT and JS employed passive attention and did not attend to the body stimuli. Thus, it is possible for physiological measurements to reflect strategies used in dissociation of pain perception, and that the quality of pain perception is altered if S is at either extreme of focused or unfocused conscious attention” (p. 368). “We hypothesize that, for nonadepts, alpha EEG training without alpha blocking to stimuli could become a distraction technique whereby S again could learn self-control and competence as he becomes more successful in controlling his EEG” (p. 369).
Sachs, Lewis B.; Feuerstein, M.; Vitale, J. H. (1977). Hypnotic self-regulation of chronic pain. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 20, 106-113.
A more diverse conceptualization of pain including the motivational- affective, cognitive-evaluative, as well as sensory components has resulted in a greater emphasis on ‘central’ factors in pain and the development of comprehensive treatments directed at these various components. This study is one such treatment program. Eight patients with chronic pain (mean duration of 8.8 years) were trained in a hypnotic self- regulation procedure to modify pain. Pre and post measures were collected on a series of indices relevant to the pain experience. The post-treatment evaluation indicated significant reductions in: (1) daily pain intensity, (2) the degree to which pain interfered with major life areas (e.g., sleep and social activity), (3) life dissatisfaction and suffering, (4) personality characteristics relevant to chronic pain and (5) percentage of self-administered pain medication. Despite the lack of a no-treatment comparison and placebo-attention controls, the chronicity of pain and the lack of effectiveness of prior medical interventions suggest that this treatment program is an effective agent in the control of chronic pain.
1976
Gardner, G. G. (1976). Childhood, death, and human dignity: Hypnotherapy for David. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 24, 122-139.
Hypnotherapy can be a significant part of the treatment of a dying child. A detailed clinical report illustrates how hypnotherapy was integrated with other treatment modalities to help a terminally ill child and his family cope effectively with problems and enhance their ability to use their own resources for personal growth and mastery throughout the dying process.
NOTES:
Includes report of a mother’s hypnosis work with her son for the three hours before he died.
Katz, Ron (1973). Control of pain in anesthesia. [Lecture]
NOTES 1:
NOTES: Author, formerly the UCLA Anesthesiology Department Chairman, uses Herbert Spiegel’s approach in hypnotic inductions. His principles of treatment include: 1. Make the patient the therapist. 2. Inform the patient, “I’ll teach you everything I can in 3 sessions.” 3. Decline to treat patients whom you don’t feel comfortable with, and refer them to someone who can help them. 4. Some patients don’t want to lose their pain; after 3 sessions with no improvement I ask them to write down (a) all the benefits they’re getting from the pain, (b) all the things they’re losing. Then I discuss it or confront it. Sometimes I say, “Go home and wait and see if in the future you understand why I can’t help you, then call me.”
Used in last 4 months at UCLA for: 1. One patient, exquisitely sensitive to medication; used a minute amount of spinal anesthesia. 2. A professor with post operative distended bowel who couldn’t tolerate nasal tube. Suggested that the tube would be helpful useful friend, he wouldn’t notice it, “you can pull it out yourself when you want but would suggest leaving it in till X-rays say OK to remove it.” 3. A physician with neck surgery (cervical disc). Told her there are 2 ways to relieve pain: (1) relax, (2) be distracted. Explained the gate theory of pain control as a kind of disuse atrophy: if a telephone switchboard is busy day after day the signals can’t get through, and the same is true with pain signals trying to enter a brain that is kept busy. 4. Burn patients 5. Failed regional anesthesia (e.g. 3 nerve areas of hand). Suggested, “You can spread numbness over the rest of your hand.”
He doesn’t advocate using hypnosis alone. With chronic cancer patients, he suggests that they carry pain pills in their pocket. Obstetrical patients can have hypnosis plus an epidural or hypnosis plus spinal anesthesia.
Most important use for hypnosis in anesthesia is in one’s daily approach to patients.
1972
Cedercrentz, C. (1972). The big mistakes: A note. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 20, 15-16.
In his book, A System of Medical Hypnosis, Ainslie Meares writes, “Most books on hypnosis, from Bernheim to the present time, devote a great deal of space to the description of successful and dramatic cures. These accounts may be of prestige value to the author, and may do something to inform the profession of the potential value of hypnosis in medicine, but these success stories are really of little help to those who would learn the technique of hypnotherapy because the emphasis is always on the success of the treatment rather than on anlysis of the psychodynamic mechanisms which brought it abauot. As in everything else, we learn most from a study of our failures [p. 3].” These comments remain as true today as they were ten years ago. With the notable exception of Meares, few colleagues have been willing to share their errors, allowing us to profit from their experience. Thus, when Dr. Cedercreutz sent along a note describing his experience with one of his patients, I was struck by his generosity, and it seemed most appropriate for all of us to share his experience by way of the Journal. Hopefully, this may encourage other colleagues to share their failures as well as their successes so that all of us may learn to be more effective therapists and better scientists. M.T.O. [Martin Orne]
NOTES
The case reported involves a patient who had migraine headache removed with hypnosis, but later developed gastrointestinal symptoms that were operated surgically with absence of positive (physical) pathology noted. Subsequent investigation of the psychological component of the problem with hypnosis revealed an early trauma (seeing a soldier killed with a bayonette) that led to migraine-like pain in the head and vomiting.
Sacerdote, Paul (1972). The nature of the hypnotherapeutic process. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 15 (1), 1-11.
The author presents several clinical cases where hypnosis was successfully utilized. Through detailed description of what takes place during sessions it is shown how various approaches are adapted to the intellectual, cultural, emotional and hypnotic capabilities of the patient and to the progress of therapy. The author analyzes what takes place during and after hypnotic intervention and draws some conclusions about the nature of the hypnotherapeutic process which, he feels, is essentially a convergence of the patient’s and therapist’s conscious and subconscious expectations and goals. The importance of the therapeutic ego of the doctor is brought into proper focus. One of the clinical cases illustrates how the therapist can convert a therapeutic relationship that may appear sterile or even hostile into a productive one by utilizing the patient’s responses, while avoiding stubborn insistence upon expectations of preconceived hypnotic responses. It is suggested that the hypnotherapeutic model may present, in clearer focus, what takes place in other psychotherapeutic exchanges which do not utilize hypnosis.
1970
Crasilneck, Harold B.; Hall, James A. (1970). The use of hypnosis in the rehabilitation of complicated vascular and post-traumatic neurological patients. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 18 (3), 152-158.
Hypnotherapy has been found of value in rehabilitation of many patients experiencing difficulty in the usual procedures which follow cerebrovascular or traumatic brain injury. 3 cases are reported to illustrate the approach taken. Of 25 similar cases seen over a 9-year period, 4 were unresponsive to hypnosis. Although an increase in motivation for recovery seemed to be the major change elicited by hypnotherapy, other theoretical possibilities are mentioned. Hypnosis may be a useful way of approaching motivational problems in rehabilitating patients who manifest negativism toward conventional treatment.
Owens, Herbert E. (1970). Hypnosis and psychotherapy in dentistry: Five case histories. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 18, 181-193. (Abstracted in Current Contents, 2, 35, 21)
Used hypnosis to facilitate dental psychotherapy in resolving problems specific to the dental situation. Case histories illustrate the use of hypnosis in alleviating dentophobia and in the care and control of allergic responses. Formal induction procedures are not always necessary in achieving the desired result. Through the appropriate use of hypnosis, observable benefits can accrue to some dental patients in their ability to approach the dental situation and receive proper care. (Spanish & German summaries) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved)
1968
Chambers, Helen (1968). Oral eroticism revealed by hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 16, 151-157.
A CASE STUDY OF THE OUTPATIENT TREATMENT OF A SEVERELY DEPRESSED WOMAN. THE CASE WAS COMPLICATED BY THE S”S REFUSING USUAL ANTIDEPRESSANT TREATMENTS. COMMUNICATION WAS DIFFICULT BUT WAS FINALLY ACHIEVED BY THE USE OF ETHER AT ALTERNATE INTERVIEWS. WITHDRAWAL OF ETHER WAS THEN USED TO CREATE A SITUATION OF DEPRIVATION TO AROUSE IN THE TRANSFERENCE ATTITUDE THE FEELINGS PRODUCED BY THE EARLY TRAUMA. THE S”S COMPULSION TO EAT RAW POTATOES WAS STUDIED WHILE SHE WAS DEEPLY HYPNOTIZED. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES THAT PLACE THE ORIGIN OF DEPRESSION AT THE TIME WHEN THE ORAL PHASE IS PRIMARY WERE CONFIRMED. THE S REFUSED ANY OTHER ANTIDEPRESSANT TREATMENT. (GERMAN+ SPANISH SUMMARIES) (PsycINFO Database
1967
Bartlett, Edmund E.; Faw, Terry T.; Liebert, Robert M. (1967). The effects of suggestions of alertness in hypnosis on pupillary response: Report on a single subject. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15 (4), 189-192.
THE PUPIL SIZE OF A SINGLE S WAS RECORDED UNDER 2 TYPES OF HYPNOTIC SUGGESTION: ALERTNESS INSTRUCTIONS AND TRADITIONAL RELAXATION INSTRUCTIONS. IT WAS FOUND THAT THE SIZE OF THE PUPIL INCREASED SIGNIFICANTLY UNDER ALERTNESS INSTRUCTIONS. THIS RESULT WAS TAKEN AS FURTHER CORROBORATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS THAT CHANGES IN VARIOUS PARAMETERS OF AROUSAL APPARENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH HYPNOSIS MAY BE ATTRIBUTED TO SPECIFIABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INSTRUCTIONS USED RATHER THAN TO STABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE “STATE” OF HYPNOSIS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Davison, Gerald C.; Singleton, Lawrence (1967). A preliminary report of improved vision under hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15 (2), 57-62.
ABSTRACT: REPORTS AN ACCIDENTAL FINDING WHICH WAS FELT TO BE PROVOCATIVE AND WORTHY OF FURTHER, MORE CONTROLLED, INVESTIGATION. THE EMPHASIS IS ON DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PHENOMENON, WITH A MINIMUM OF THEORIZING. WHILE IN A VERY DEEP HYPNOTIC TRANCE, S WAS INDUCED TO HAVE BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE HALLUCINATIONS. ON THE FOLLOWING DAY, HE REPORTED SPONTANEOUSLY THAT HE HAD BEEN STRUCK BY THE CLARITY OF BOTH THE VISIONS AND THE PERCEPTIONS OF ACTUAL OBJECTS WHILE HYPNOTIZED; HE HAD NOT, HOWEVER, BEEN WEARING HIS GLASSES AT THE TIME, THOUGH, UNDER NORMAL CIRCUMSTANCES HE WORE HIS GLASSES AT ALL TIMES. NO SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVED VISION OR EXTRA EFFORT HAD BEEN GIVEN. 2 CAREFUL OPHTHALMOLOGICAL EXAMINATIONS WERE MADE DURING THE FOLLOWING 2 WK., CONFIRMING THE FACT THAT S”S EYESIGHT SHOWED A SIGNIFICANT IMPROVEMENT DURING HYPNOSIS AS OPPOSED TO THE WAKING STATE. (SPANISH + GERMAN SUMMARIES) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Lindner, Harold; Stevens, Harold (1967). Hypnotherapy and psychosomatics in the syndrome of Gilles de la Tourette. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15, 151-155.
REPORTS A CASE STUDY OF HYPNOTHERAPEUTIC TREATMENT OF A 19-YR-OLD MALE WITH GILLES DE LA TOURETTE SYNDROME. FROM A CONSIDERATION OF THE PROBABLE PSYCHODYNAMICS OF THE PATIENT, IT SEEMS THAT THE SYNDROME, A PRESUMED NEUROLOGICAL STATE, IS RESPONSIVE TO PSYCHOTHERAPY AND HYPNOSIS. (SPANISH + GERMAN SUMMARIES) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Schneck, Jerome M. (1966). Hypnoanalytic elucidation of a childhood germ phobia. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 14, 305-307.
A PATIENT IN HYPNOANALYSIS WAS ABLE TO BECOME AWARE OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HER CHILDHOOD GERM PHOBIA AND HER EARLIER FEAR AND FANTASY OF PREGNANCY. THIS REPORT TOUCHES ON THE ROLE OF HYPNOSIS IN FACILITATING THE CONNECTION OF ISOLATED MEMORIES. (SPANISH + FRENCH SUMMARIES) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1965
Gruenewald, Doris (1965). Hypnotherapy in a case of adult nailbiting. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13 (4), 209-219.
A middle-aged female nailbiter was treated in short-term hypnotherapy. Hypotheses and observations postulated in the literature for the dynamics of the symptom in children and young adults were shown to be valid in this case of more advanced age. Light-to-medium trance proved adequate for exploration and resolution of conflicts of which nailbiting was symptomatic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
McCord, Hallack (1965). Trance induction under unusual circumstances. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13, 96-102.
In order to obtain a test under naturalistic field conditions of the possible facilitory or inhibitory effects of ongoing tasks on hypnotizability and the interaction of such effects with S”s set either to oppose or not oppose entering hypnosis, a series of Ss were hypnotized either singly or in groups while they were performing a variety of tasks typical of those encountered in office or factory situations. Included were such tasks as typewriting, reading a book, engaging in creative writing, performing the Bennett Hand Tool Dexterity and the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation tests, and performing the Pennsylvania Bi-Manual Worksample. In many cases, it was found that hypnosis could be induced under these conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Naruse, Gosaku (1965). The hypnotic treatment of stage fright in champion athletes. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13 (2), 63-70.
The use of direct hypnotic suggestion, posthypnotically produced autohypnosis, and self-hypnosis in conjunction with autogenic training and progressive relaxation in the treatment of “stage fright” in athletes is discussed. Illustrative case histories drawn from a sample of athletes participating in the 1960 Olympic Games are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1962
Moss, C. Scott; Thompson, M. M.; Nolte, J. (1962). An additional study in hysteria: The case of Alice M.. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 10, 54-74. (Abstracted in Index Medicus, 62, 1425)
Detailed account of the psychotherapy of one female hysteric–a treatment failure–is the stimulant for discussion of the genetics and dynamics of this nosology. Hypnosis revealed the experimental basis for the symptoms and associated adjustment difficulties. The dynamics bear a remarkable resemblance to those advanced by Freud, though issue is taken with several psychoanalytic concepts. The discussion deals largely with the phenomenology of the female hysteric. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Raginsky, Bernard B. (1962). Sensory hypnoplasty with case illustration. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 10, 205-219. (In Index Medicus 63: March, S-543)
Sensory hypnoplasty is a technique in hypnoanalysis in which the hypnotized patient models clay to which various sensory stimuli (e.g., temperature, texture, color, smell) have been added to stimulate basic primitive memories, associations, sensations, and conflicts. This allows the patient to give plastic expression to repressed and suppressed material which is then followed by verbalization of the conflicts. The therapeutic process is reputed to be greatly accelerated. This technique has been used in the successful treatment of diverse pathological conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Sacerdote, Paul (1962). The place of hypnosis in the relief of severe protracted pain. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 4, 150-157.
NOTES
Severe chronic pain, such as associated with cancer or severe arthritis has lost any protective quality, and to some degree reflects memories of the pain stored in the central nervous system. There are three kinds of analgesics, those that modify peripheral pain receptors, those than modify central perception, and those that change the patient’s reaction to pain. Hypnosis is similar to the third type.
The author reviews literature on hypnosis for severe pain and then discusses his personal experience using hypnosis for pain management. Several authors mention that pain, dysfunction and anxiety can all be present and can be treated effectively using hypnosis. Milton Erickson wrote extensively, indicating that he taught patients how to develop analgesia, anesthesia, negative and positive hallucination, profound amnesia, body disorientation and dissociation, and time distortion. Erickson noted the importance of hypnosis in permitting pain patients to maintain themselves in the warm atmosphere of their family.
Perese (1961) wrote about how to manage pain in malignant disease, based on his experience with 714 cases. Perese wrote, “‘As yet, we do not have an ideal analgesic drug that will control the severest pain… cause no anorexia or gastrointestinal symptoms, produce euphoria but no addiction, suppress anxiety and fears without dampening the mental faculties… cause no toxic symptoms, and induce on tolerance in constant daily use at the highest therapeutic dose for at least 3 months.’ (To the reader [Sacerdote], the foregoing describes hypnosis properly employed)” (p. 152). Sacerdote notes that Perese himself did not use hypnosis personally, and that the patients he referred to other physicians did not usually benefit greatly from the hypnosis.
Other investigations by Lea, Ware and Monroe (1960) and Cangello (1961) obtained favorable results using hypnosis. Lea et al. (1960) obtained good results in the control of intractable pain for 12 of 17 unselected patients. They attributed the five poor outcome cases to pre-existing psychiatric problems. Cangello (1961) used hypnosis with 22 advanced cancer patients who were requiring narcotic medication every four hours, with good results: 59% had at least some reduction in narcotic intake. “The duration of effectiveness varied from one week to 4.5 months. However, none of the patients in the so-called failure group who was capable of hypnotic trance eventually required chemical or surgical approach, or developed tolerance to the drug” (p. 152).
“PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. In handling patients with protracted painful illness, the author has attempted to combine minimum quantities of analgesic and tranquilizing medications with deliberate use of placebos, and with application of hypnotic methods. … not one single method or combination of methods will work equally well in every single case” (p. 152).
“A few excellent subjects will become very adept at using self-hypnosis either automatically or when they find it necessary. The author has found patients who easily tolerate the transfer of the hypnotic rapport from the physician to another physician or to a member of their family. Some patients learn to achieve instant deep trances over the telephone with beneficial results” (p. 153).
“It is worth while in a larger number of patients to combine hypnosis and a systematic use of placebos in such a way that the psychological reaction to pain will be beneficially influenced” (p. 156).
“In no instance has there been adverse developments from the use of hypnosis with these patients, nor was there any development of substitutive psychosomatic symptoms” (p. 156).
1961
Levendula, Dezso (1961). Two case presentations: Treatment of central pain with reconstruction of the body-image — hypnoanalysis of a travel phobia. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 9, 283-289.
NOTES
Uses analogy of phantom limb (hallucinated pain which is a central pain) with a multiple sclerosis patient who had ”excruciating” pain between her thighs despite paralysis from waist down due to multiple sclerosis. She valued her sex life though she couldn”t feel sexual response, and felt that she ”didn”t have any legs” and her husband ”had to carry her.”
In giving her history the patient noted an increasing numbness and weakness in her legs five years earlier. At that time she also entered menopause and developed severe vaginitis. She became depressed when she became increasingly unable control her excretory functions. As the pain in the genital region increased, her ability to feel pleasant vaginal sensations diminished. Ultimately the pain was continually present.
The therapist attributed her problem to a faulty body image because she “denied the existence of her legs which were actually physically present, although, she could neither feel, nor see, nor move them” (p. 285). Secondly, it was most necessary for her to hold on to the myth [sic], that her vagina existed, because it made her feel wanted and needed by her husband. She was unconsciously afraid that by giving up her vagina she would lose the most important bond between herself and her husband” (p. 285).
The therapist speculated that “the pain, which was the last sensation perceived before the total sensory loss occurred, was fixated centrally. This ”pain-image” served to maintain the pretense, unconsciously of course, that there was still feeling in the vagina even though it was only pain and not pleasure. The pain permitted her to avoid facing reality, just as in the case of an amputee who develops the fantasy of a phantom limb, because he cannot readjust his pre-existing body-image to the acceptance of mutilation” (p. 285). He offered the patient “the rather simple explanation… that because she really did not feel where her lower body ended or began, the pain served her need to know where the body halves were separated. If she could learn to imagine and to accept herself as a full, whole person, the pain probably would leave her. This theory seemed very logical and acceptable to the patient” (p. 285).
“Hypnosis was extensively utilized in the following sessions to regress the patient toward her youth. She went again for long walks with her boyfriend, now her husband. It was fun to re-experience the feeling of walking in her father”s apple orchard and stretch up for a red apple. Autohypnosis was taught and [he] told her to exercise ”walking” while hypnotized twice daily” (p. 285-286). He also tapped on the soles of her feet repeatedly, until she could localize the vibrations. “She finally learned that she did have legs and also that other sensations besides pain could originate below the waist…. Gradually with the acceptance of her ”wholeness and tallness” the pain became less and less. She was able to ”forget” the pain for a longer period of time. … Occasionally she does call. She tells [the therapist] that in a stressful situation, such as moving into a new house and not knowing where things are, the pain comes back temporarily, but it is much less and after [they] talk an hour she is relieved” (p. 287). The patient had a total of 20 visits.
The author describes a second case, which is not described in these notes.
Marcus, Howard W.; Bowers, Margaretta K. (1961). Hypnosis and schizophrenia in the dental situation. A case report. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 9, 47-57. (In Index Medicus 61: 1228)
(Author”s Summary) A case is presented of a schizophrenic patient, paranoid type, whose phobic fear of dentistry had resulted in the development of a delusional system: he would get well if his teeth were repaired under hypnosis. In reality, his need of dental care was severe. He had lost three teeth by extraction because of painful cavities which he could not permit to be treated with conventional methods. He presented deep cavities in his front teeth. The patient was consistently unable to make rapport with several psychiatrists and dental treatment was finally discontinued because of unwillingness to proceed without psychiatric supervision. Alternative methods of handling the situation and its implications are discussed.
Guinazu, S. (1960). Relajacion de Schultz e ionotoforesis calcica trans cerebral. Acta Hipnologia Latino-Americana, 1, 65-67. (Abstracted in American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 1962, 5, 75)
The author recommends the use of autogenic training in conjunction with transcerebral calcium iontoforesis for the treatment of neurotic and psychotic disorders. This combined therapy abbreviates treatment time and leads to greater percentage of recoveries. Four cases, taken from over two hundred, are presented and analyzed.
Lea, Paul A.; Ware, Paul D.; Monroe, Russell R. (1960). The hypnotic control of intractable pain. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 3, 3-8.
NOTES
Authors located 10 articles dealing with chronic pain and hypnosis. Most reported that it was possible to reduce or control chronic pain during the hypnotic trance but virtually impossible to control it post-hypnotically; particularly for any length of time. Two exceptions were the contributions of Harold Rosen, M.D., who attempted to obtain a psychological lobotomy through hypnosis, and Milton H. Erickson, M.D., who taught his patients positive and negative hallucinations in the areas of touch, deep sensation, and kinesthesia; body disorientations and dissociations; analgesia and anesthesia for both superficial and deep sensations; and time distortions (Erickson, 1959, possibly in American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis).
SUMMARY.
Twenty unselected patients with chronic intractable pain were referred for treatment by hypnotherapy. Only one did not obtain at least a light hypnotic trance, and two others could not be evaluated [post treatment] for extraneous reasons. Of the remaining 17, three improved sufficiently to be taken off all medications and nine significantly improved in that the character of the pain was changed and less medication was needed. Of the five failures, four had severe complicating psychiatric problems. [Authors note that while one paranoid schizophrenic was a treatment failure, another with that diagnosis was one of their best successes.]
“A somnambulistic trance was not necessary with the technique we used; often as much was accomplished with medium or even light hypnosis” (p. 8). The hypnotists were medical students who had a considerable amount of induction experience but not much treatment experience or doctor-patient relationship experience. The authors noted that responses to post-hypnotic suggestions (e.g. that patients would feel better or not require as much medication) were delayed from several hours to as much as a week.
Their basic technique was to use hypnotic suggestion to alter the character of the chronic pain or to change the patient’s attitude towards this pain. This was done by attempting to localize the pain in one pathological area with special emphasis on the fact that the rest of the body was normal or by suggesting that, as the patient learned to relax, the pain would not bother him as much. Only occasionally did they try to remove the pain completely or to control it through the use of self-hypnosis and posthypnotic suggestion. They based their procedure, in part, on the ideas of Wolff and Wolf (1959), who stated that, although the threshold for perception of pain was relatively constant, the reaction to this pain varied between wide limits for a given individual–in fact, for the same individual under different circumstances.
Patients were seen for 4-40 sessions (12 patients for 4-10; only 3 patients for more than 20 sessions). The authors defined results as: Excellent – Character of pain changed and all medication stopped. Good – Character of pain changed, though some medication had to be continued Failure – Character of pain was not changed. (It is important to note that some subjects who experienced only a light trance were nevertheless benefitted.)
The data given in their table are a bit discrepant from the data summarized above, in that the table lists only two who could not be evaluated, and six failures: 3 Excellent 9 Good 6 Failure 2 NA (presumably not evaluated post-therapy)
1959
Platonov, K. I. (1959). The word as a physiological and therapeutic factor: The theory and practice of psychotherapy according to I. P. Pavlov. ( 2nd). Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House.
NOTES
On pp. 75-76 the author discusses conditioning in hypnosis. Most of the theoretical material is in the first part of the book; the rest consists of case studies. He presents the position that the activity of the cortex and subcortex are different during states of waking and suggested sleep.
Note: Much of the Russian research done during “suggested sleep” involves subjects who are hypnotized for a long period of time–sometimes hours. Routinely, in treatment, they would give corrective suggestions and then tell the person to “sleep” and would leave them in the “sleep” for an hour or longer.
“Thus, it appears from the foregoing that the basic peculiarities of the activity of the cerebral cortex manifesting themselves in the state of suggested sleep are as follows: 1. In addition to the division of the cerebral hemispheres into sections of sleep and wakefulness typical of the hypnotic sleep of an animal, there is also a functional dissociation of the two signal systems and within the second signal system. 2. The activity of the second signal system under these conditions is not only confined to the narrow framework of the rapport zone, but is also frequently of a passive nature being directly dependent on the verbal influences of the hypnotist. Outside these influences there is no (or hardly any) activity. 3. A considerable increase in the coupling function with respect to the stimuli of the second signal system is noted at the same time in the rapport zone. This especially favours the formation of new cortical dynamic structures under the verbal influences of the hypnotist, these structures representing the physiological basis for effectuating the suggested actions and states.
“The foregoing peculiarities manifest themselves in the fact that the entire external second signal activity of the subject is reduced only to direct answers to the questions of the hypnotist with no independent reactions to any influences, including verbal, coming from other people (so-called isolated rapport). This is understandable, since the activity of the second signal system lying outside the rapport zone is inhibited” (pp. 73-74).
“As to the problem of the peculiarities of the conditioned reflex activity during suggested sleep, it will be noted that this problem has not been very extensively studied as yet. Nevertheless, the data of various authors are of indubitable interest, since they have revealed a number of specific peculiarities in the state of the higher nervous activity under these conditions.
“According to these data the conditioned reflex activity in suggested sleep undergoes certain changes. Thus, S. Levin observed in his early studies (1931) that in children under conditions of suggested sleep the motor and secretory conditioned reflexes elaborated earlier in the waking state grew very much weaker and that there was a dissociation both between the motor and secretory conditioned reflexes and between the unconditioned reflexes of salivation and mastication; he also observed the transitional (phasic) states–paradoxical, ultraparadoxical and inhibitory phases, all the way to the onset of complete sleep” (pp. 74-75).
Platonov indicates that conditioned reflexes may disappear during suggested sleep (Povorinsky & Traugott, 1936). Arousal from suggested sleep results in gradual restoration of the reflexes, with speech reactions inhibited first and restored last. Pen & Jigarov (1936) also showed that there is a weakening of conditioned reflexes, with increased latency, in suggested sleep. These authors showed that it is impossible to form new conditioned reflexes in deep states of suggested sleep, and the conditioning is difficult in lighter states.
“Y. Povorinsky’s data (1937) indicate that the conditioned reflexes elaborated in the waking state have a longer latent period during suggested sleep and in some subjects they are completely absent. Under these circumstances, the reactions to the verbal influences of the hypnotist are retained even during the deepest suggested sleep. The more complex and ontogenetically later conditioned bonds of the speech-motor analyzer are inhibited first as the subject lapses into a state of suggested sleep and are disinhibited the last as the subject awakens from this state” (p. 75).
“B. Pavlov and Y. Povorinsky observe (1953) that the conditioned bonds reinforced by the words of the hypnotist are formed during suggested sleep faster than in the waking state. In this case, during the somnambulistic phase of suggested sleep verbal reinforcements, as a rule, provoke a stronger and longer reaction with a shorter latent period than a direct first signal stimulus” (p. 76). The conditioning that occurs during suggested sleep does not manifest during waking periods unless suggestions are given during the sleep to react after wakening. The author takes this to be evidence that conditioned reflex activity can be modified by verbal suggestions.
During the somnambulistic stage of suggested sleep, subjects are less adept at performing addition. This indicates that inhibition has spread to the second signal system. However, inhibition of different sensory systems seems to vary from person to person. Krasnogorsky (1951) reported one subject did not react to light, but hearing seemed to be more sensitive than in the waking state.
“All of the above testifies to the considerable changes in the character of cortical activity regularly occurring during suggested sleep and determining, on the whole, the specific nature of higher nervous activity, the systematic study of which should be the object of further research” (p. 77).
1956
McCord, Hallack (1956). Hypnosis as an aid to the teaching of a severely mentally retarded teenage boy. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 4 (1), 21-23. (Abstracted in Psychological Abstracts 57: 3729)
NOTES
A 16 year old boy with I.Q. measured at 55 was hypnotized for 20 minutes daily for one month. During each session he was given material to learn (multiplication tables, spelling words, reading recognition, and general information — only one presented during each hypnosis session). “At the end of 90 days, the subject was stil retaining amost 100 percent of all material presented except for the multiplication tables which showed about 50 percent loss” (p. 22). “As a result of routinely introduced hypnotic suggestions for well-being, happiness, desire to learn, and assurance of acceptance, Ben’s motivation to learn in the classroom situation took a sharp surge upward. (It was for this reason that giving him parallel material in the normal state to be used to measure comparative learning rates promptly became scientifically unsound as a control in this study.)” (p. 22). Although he was not given material to study in between sessions, “it was known that he _mentally_ reviewed the material while working and playing in the school program” (p. 23).
1955
Ament, Phillip (1955). A psychosomatic approach to the use of anesthesia for a hysterical dental patient: A case history. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 3, 120-123. (Abstracted in Psychological Abstracts 56: 1280)
NOTES
Author describes a case highly resistant both to anesthesia and dentistry. Although very responsive to hypnosis, she continued moaning and moving from side to side (later determined to be her way of preventing dental work even though anesthetized). Ultimately a combination of hypnosis and multiple anesthetics was needed, including nembutal, sodium pentothal, nitrous oxide and novocain. In the author’s experience, most other patients require only hypnosis or hypnosis plus novocaine.
Hershman, Seymour (1955). Hypnosis in the treatment of obesity. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 3 (3), 136-139.
NOTES
Three case histories are presented for patients treated for obesity using hypnotherapy. The procedure in hypnosis involved: (1) visualizing person on a stage who is unhappy, depressed, followed by a person who is happy, content; (2) discussing diet with indirect suggestions that adherence would lead to the happy, contented feelings and vice versa for non-adherence; (3) giving permissive suggestions regarding behavior change (e.g. “Perhaps it is only _certain_ foods that should be distasteful and not the eating of ‘allowed’ foods” (p. 137). Patients were seen weekly for 4-6 weeks, then bi-weekly or monthly for several months, and then only occasionally. “The easier acceptance of the therapy in the hypnotic state cannot be too strongly emphasized. … rapport is established more quickly and easily, and the feeling of participation on the part of the patient convinces him that the therapy will be successful” (p. 139).
Klemperer, Edith (1955). The spontaneous self-portrait in hypnoanalysis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 3 (1), 28-33. (Abstracted in Psychological Abstracts 55: 8621)
NOTES
Author presents descriptions patients gave of themselves in hypnoanalysis and compares them with material obtained with Dr. Walter Boernstein’s Verbal Self-Portrait Test. On that test, the patient is asked, ‘If you were an accomplished artist, how would you paint yourself?’ The author concludes, “In summarizing I wanted to show that patients in hypnoanalysis can use the symbolical representation of their body as a means of bringing to the fore psychic traits, conflicts, and unconscious forces motivating them. They can even picture through it the complications of their life histories. In other words, the personality projection as it is revealed in the Spontaneous Self-Portrait here serves as a tool for the recognition and understanding of the neurotic structure” (p. 33).
Erickson, Milton H. (1954). Special techniques of brief hypnotherapy. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 2, 109-129. (Abstracted in Psychological Abstracts 55: 2508)
NOTES
Author describes techniques used with patients who aren’t able, for internal or environmental reasons, to undertake comprehensive therapy, “Intentionally utilizing neurotic symptomatology to meet the unique needs of the patient” (p. 109). He provides 8 case reports.
Patient 1 was reassured, in hypnosis, that his arm paralysis was due to “inertia syndrome” which he would continue to have, but it wouldn’t interfere with his work.
Patient 2, also with arm paralysis had another comparable, non-incapacitating, symptom substituted.
Patients 3 and 4, for whome restrictions on therapy were the limits of time and situational realities, had their symptoms transformed (e.g. by introducing in hypnosis the obsessional thought or worry that he would NOT have the symptom for which he sought help).
Patients 5 and 6 were helped, through hypnosis, to symptom amelioration. (Patient 5 had an IQ of 65.)
Patient 7 “Therapy was achieved … by a deliberate correction of immediate emotional responses without rejecting them and the utilization of time to palliate and to force a correction of the problem by the intensity of the emotional reaction to its definition” (p. 121)
Patient 8 “the procedure was the deliberate development, at a near conscious level, of an immediately stronger emotion in a situation compelling an emotional response corrective, in turn, upon the actual problem” (p. 121).
1954
Kline, Milton V. (1954). Psoriasis and hypnotherapy: A case report. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 2 (4), 318-322.
NOTES
“Summary: A chronic case of psoriasis in a forty-five-year-old woman has been reported upon wherein there has been demonstrated a definitive relationship between emotional factors and the onset of the psoriasis. Despite resolution of the precipitating distress, the psoriasis remained unabated for more than twenty years until successfully treated with hypnotherapy. Some of the theoretical issues related to both the origin and therapeutic rationale have been discussed” (p. 322).
Kupfer, David (1954). Hypnotherapy in a case of functional heart disorder. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 2 (3), 186-190.
NOTES
Summary.
A young soldier with functional cardiac complaints was treated with hypnosis in a total of 4 interviews. The dynamics were bypassed and the therapeutic suggestions attached to 2 significant events in the patient’s childhood, dealing intimately with the oedipal conflict and castration fears. Follow-up studies of 3 weeks duration revealed that significant changes had been produced in the patient’s attitudes towards himself and towards his role in the military service” (p. 190).