Patient 7 “Therapy was achieved … by a deliberate correction of immediate emotional responses without rejecting them and the utilization of time to palliate and to force a correction of the problem by the intensity of the emotional reaction to its definition” (p. 121)
Patient 8 “the procedure was the deliberate development, at a near conscious level, of an immediately stronger emotion in a situation compelling an emotional response corrective, in turn, upon the actual problem” (p. 121).
Mesmer
2000
Elter-Nodvin, Edeltraud (2000). Computerized content analysis: A comparison of the verbal productions of high hypnotizable, low hypnotizable and simulating subjects (Dissertation). (http://www.televid.com/elternodvin/dissertation/)
This research was designed to investigate the domain of hypnosis and to explore how the “”state”” of hypnosis, along with the susceptibility to hypnosis relate to lexical choice in verbal productions as well as to primary/secondary process mentation. … College students were screened for level of hypnotic susceptibility … [yielding] 32 high hypnotizable subjects and 57 low hypnotizable subjects [randomly assigned to two groups] … 29 low hypnotizable subjects and 28 low hypnotizable simulating subjects.
Responses to six Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) cards and responses to five free speech story-openings were collected and tape-recorded during [counterbalanced waking and hypnosis conditions]…. verbal productions were transcribed and [computer] analyzed by … the Dartmouth Adaptation of The General Inquirer … and COUNT with the Regressive Imagery Dictionary … .
To summarize, findings suggest that the changes in SECONDARY PROCESS and THOUGHT,as well as the DAGI-III-variable EMOTION and the COUNT-RID-variable EMOTION, may be a result [sic] other than hypnotic ability or the hypnotic experience. The possibility has been raised, that subjects who had been instructed to simulate hypnosis were successful in discerning the experimental, implicit demands to respond with decreased SECONDARY PROCESS and THOUGHT as measured by the DAGI-III and COUNT-RID respectively and to present the appearance of a genuinely hypnotized subject. The same was true for the increase in EMOTION as measured by the DAGI-III as well as by the COUNT-RID. The interaction between the condition (baseline vs. hypnosis) and the group (level of hypnotic susceptibility) would have provided the strongest support for the assertion that hypnosis changes a dimension (e.g. enhances primary process responding or decreases secondary process mentation) in highly hypnotizable subjects.
The likelihood that the hypnotic main-effect can be attributed at least to some extent to demand characteristics has been supported by the current results. The hypnotic __state__, even though it can be measured through behavioral measures such as the HGSHS and the CAH, cannot be measured by content measures of verbal productions.
Findings are discussed in regard to previous literature suggesting a link between primary process and hypnosis and suggestions for future research are made. In addition, theoretical and practical implications are discussed. – From dissertation at web site http://www.televid.com/elternodvin/dissertation/
Gallo, D.A. & Finger, S. (2000). The power of a musical instrument: Franklin, the Mozarts, Mesmer, and the glass armonica.. History of psychology, 3, 326-343..
Benjamin Franklin”s invention of the the armonica became the favorite instrument of Mesmer. In both Vienna and Paris, Mesmer used background armonica music to faciliate the effect of animal magetism. With the demise of mesmerism following the report of the French royal commissions, the armonica also faded into history
1964
Ludwig, Arnold M. (1964). An historical survey of the early roots of mesmerism. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12 (4), 205-217.
Many believe that Franz Anton Mesmer helped lay the foundations upon which modern hypnotic theory and practice evolved. However, as one views the history of healing through suggestion prior to Mesmer, it becomes apparent that neither his theories nor his practices showed much originality. In fact, there is good evidence that Mesmer plagiarized the work of others. With this in mind, it appears that Mesmer”s contribution to later psychological healing and theory was related more to his personality than to his originality. (Journal Abstract)
1957
Conn, Jacob H. (1957). Historical aspects of scientific hypnosis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 5 (1), 17-24.
The author relates the history of hypnosis beginning with pre-historic therapeutic suggestion, the trances of Persian Magi and Indian Yogi, and incubation or temple sleep in Egypt and Greece. Touching on practices among Egyptians, Romans, Greeks and the Middle Ages in Europe, he writes in more detail about Mesmer, John Elliotson, James Braid, Ambroise Auguste Liebault, Hyppolyte Marie Bernheim, and Jean Martin Charcot.
Meta-Analysis
2002
Montgomery, Guy H.; David, Daniel; Winkel, Gary; Silverstein, Jeffrey H.; Bovbjerg, Dana H. (2002). The effectiveness of adjunctive hypnosis with surgical patients: A meta-analysis. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 94, 1639-1645.
Hypnosis is a nonpharmacologic means for managing adverse surgical side effects. Typically, reviews of the hypnosis literature have been narrative in nature, focused on specific outcome domains (e.g., patients”””” self-reported pain), and rarely address the impact of different modes of the hypnosis administration. Therefore, it is important to take a quantitative approach to assessing the beneficial impact of adjunctive hypnosis for surgical patients, as well as to examine whether the beneficial impact of hypnosis goes beyond patients”””” pain and method of the administration. We conducted meta-analyses of published controlled studies (n = 20) that used hypnosis with surgical patients to determine: 1) overall, whether hypnosis has a significant beneficial impact, 2) whether there are outcomes for which hypnosis is relatively more effective, and 3) whether the method of hypnotic induction (live versus audiotape) affects hypnosis efficacy. Our results revealed a significant effect size (D = 1.20), indicating that surgical patients in hypnosis treatment groups had better outcomes than 89% of patients in control groups. No significant differences were found between clinical outcome categories or between methods of the induction of hypnosis. These results support the position that hypnosis is an effective adjunctive procedure for a wide variety of surgical patients. IMPLICATIONS: A meta-analytical review of studies using hypnosis with surgical patients was performed to determine the effectiveness of the procedure. The results indicated that patients in hypnosis treatment groups had better clinical outcomes than 89% of patients in control groups. These data strongly support the use of hypnosis with surgical patients. [National Library of Medicine Abstract]
1996
Kirsch, Irving (1996). Hypnosis in psychotherapy: Efficacy and mechanisms. Contemporary Hypnosis, 13 (2), 109-114.
Meta-analyses have established that different psychotherapies have different outcomes. Cognitive-behavioural therapies are significantly more effective than psychodynamic therapies, and their superiority increases when long-term follow-up is assessed. Hypnosis enhances the efficacy of both psychodynamic and cognitive- behavioural psychotherapy, and this effect is especially strong in long-term outcome of treatment for obesity. The paucity of procedural differences between hypnotic and non- hypnotic treatments in many of the studies demonstrating a substantial advantage for hypnosis suggests that the effect depends on the use of the word ‘hypnosis’. Hypnosis can be regarded as an empirically-validated, non-deceptive placebo, the effects of which are mediated by response expectancies.
Kirsch, Irving (1996). Hypnotic enhancement of cognitive-behavioral weight loss treatments–Another meta-reanalysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64 (3), 517-519.
In a 3rd meta-analysis of the effect of adding hypnosis to cognitive- behavioral treatments for weight reduction, additional data were obtained from authors of 2 studies, and computational inaccuracies in both previous meta-analyses were corrected. Averaged across posttreatment and follow-up assessment periods, the mean weight loss was 6.00 lbs. (2.72 kg) without hypnosis and 11.83 lbs. (5.37 kg) with hypnosis. The mean effect size of this difference was 0.66 SD. At the last assessment period, the mean weight loss was 6.03 lbs. (2.74 kg) without hypnosis and 14.88 lbs. (6.75 kg) with hypnosis. The effect size for this difference was 0.98 SD. Correlational analyses indicated that the benefits of hypnosis increased substantially over time (r=.74).
inaccuracies in both previous meta-analyses were corrected. Averaged across posttreatment and follow-up assessment periods, the mean weight loss was 6.00 lbs. (2.72 kg) without hypnosis and 11.83 lbs. (5.37 kg) with hypnosis. The mean effect size of this difference was 0.66 SD. At the last assessment period, the mean weight loss was 6.03 lbs. (2.74 kg) without hypnosis and 14.88 lbs. (6.75 kg) with hypnosis. The effect size for this difference was 0.98 SD. Correlational analyses indicated that the benefits of hypnosis increased substantially over time (r=.74).
1995
Kirsch, Irving; Montgomery, Guy; Sapirstein, Guy (1995). Hypnosis as an adjunct to cognitive behavioral psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63 (2), 214-220.
A meta-analysis was performed on 18 studies in which a cognitive- behavioral therapy was compared with the same therapy supplemented by hypnosis. The results indicated that the addition of hypnosis substantially enhanced treatment outcome, so that the average client receiving cognitive-behavioral hypnotherapy showed greater improvement than at least 70% of clients receiving nonhypnotic treatment. Effects seemed particularly pronounced for treatments of obesity, especially at long-term follow-up, indicating that unlike those in nonhypnotic treatment, clients to whom hypnotic inductions had been administered continued to lose weight after treatment ended. These results were particularly striking because of the few procedural differences between the hypnotic and nonhypnotic treatments.
1993
Saperstein, Guy; Montgomery, Guy; Kirsch, Irving (1993, August). Cognitive-behavioral hypnotherapy: A meta-analysis. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
Meta-analysis was used to compare the effectiveness of cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) to that of cognitive-behavior therapy with hypnosis (CBHT). A review of the literature revealed 18 studies in which 20 hypnotic treatments were compared to similar non-hypnotic treatments and in which sufficient data were presented for the calculation of effect sizes. Effect sizes were weighted for sample size and then averaged. This resulted in a mean effect size of 1.37 standard deviation units, indicating that the average client receiving cognitive-behavioral hypnotherapy is better off than 90 percent of clients who receive the same treatment in a nonhypnotic context. Substantial variance in effect sizes was found, indicating the presence of a moderator variable. Further analyses indicated that this variance was limited to treatments in which obesity was the presenting problem. The mean effect size for the addition of hypnosis to treatments of obesity was larger (M = 1.98) and more variable (variance = 4.10) than that for the addition of hypnosis to treatments for other presenting problems (M = .52; variance = .06). Also, studies of clinical samples yielded larger effects (M = 1.72) than analogue studies with college student samples (M = .07). The effect of hypnosis was independent of whether relaxation training was included in the nonhypnotic treatment or whether the hypnotic treatment included suggestions that were not included in the nonhypnotic treatment. Consistent with response expectancy theory, these data indicate that the substantial positive effect obtained was due to labeling the treatment ‘hypnosis,’ rather than to any substantive change in clinical procedure. (ABSTRACT from Bulletin of Division 30, Psychological Hypnosis, Fall 1993, Vol. 2, No. 3.) to treatments for other presenting problems (M = .52; variance = .06). Also, studies of clinical samples yielded larger effects (M = 1.72) than analogue studies with college student samples (M = .07). The effect of hypnosis was independent of whether relaxation training was included in the nonhypnotic treatment or whether the hypnotic treatment included suggestions that were not included in the nonhypnotic treatment. Consistent with response expectancy theory, these data indicate that the substantial positive effect obtained was due to labeling the treatment ‘hypnosis,’ rather than to any substantive change in clinical procedure. (ABSTRACT from Bulletin of Division 30, Psychological Hypnosis, Fall 1993, Vol. 2, No. 3.)
1992
Kirsch, Irving (1992, August). Cognitive-behavioral hypnotherapy. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
The use of hypnosis to augment cognitive behavior therapy was described. Hypnotic inductions establish a context in which the effects of therapeutic interventions can be potentiated for clients with positive attitudes and expectancies toward it. Hypnosis can also provide a disinhibiting context for both clients and therapists, allowing them to behave in ways that are therapeutic, but that might seem awkward in other contexts. A meta-analysis of outcome studies in which the effects of a cognitive-behavioral treatment were compared to the effects of the same treatments supplemented by hypnosis resulted in a mean effect size of 0.87 standard deviations, indicating the average client receiving cognitive-behavioral hypnotherapy is better off at the end of it than more than 80 percent of clients who receive the same treatment in a nonhypnotic context. (ABSTRACT from the Bulletin of Division 30, Psychological Hypnosis, Fall, 1992, Vol. 1, No. 3.)
Lyons, Larry C. (1992, October). Absorption and hypnotizability: Meta-analysis of studies to determine if contextual effects are important. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Arlington, VA.
Correlations between hypnotizability and Absorption range from .20 to .40; Council et al. suggest the correlation between these variables is a context effect (expectancy). In our review there was no statistically significant difference between correlations that were found in and out of context (.26 and .23, weighted means) in more than 40 studies with more than one correlation per study.
When Absorption was measured before hypnosis experience the r = .25; after the hypnosis experience, r = .32 (significantly different), which also was different from what context hypothesis would predict. Any context difference may be a function of length of time between the Absorption and hypnosis sessions.
Data does not support the context hypothesis. Measuring Absorption after hypnosis resulted in higher mean correlations with susceptibility. However, the magnitude of this relationship was small. Variation due to test reliability and small sample size are likely explanations of the differences in the magnitude of the correlations across studies. We also must consider scale reliability and sample error (samples less than 1000 have departures from the population correlation that are fairly large).
CONCLUSION. We should construct confidence intervals around observed correlations and look at the overlap; don’t look only at the significance of the difference between correlations.
Author is in the process of conducting a mail survey to obtain unpublished results on context effect.
1991
Hinshaw, Karin E. (1991). The effects of mental practice on motor skill performance: Critical evaluation and meta-analysis. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 11, 3-35.
21 studies that met the criteria of having both an adequate control and a mental practice alone group were included. The 44 separate effect sizes resulted in an overall average effect size of .68 (SD = .11) indicating that there is a significant benefit to performance of using mental practice over no practice. A series of General Linear Models revealed that the use of “internal” imagery produced a larger average effect size than the use of “external” imagery, and that mental practice sessions of less than one minute or between ten and fifteen minutes in length produced a larger average effect size than sessions of three to five minutes in length. These findings suggest the complexity of the relationship between variables that influence mental practice.
Marzi, C. A.; Bisiacchi, P.; Nicoletti, R. (1991). Is interhemispheric transfer of visuomotor information asymmetric? Evidence from a meta-analysis. Neuropsychologia, 29, 1163-1177.
Using a meta-analytic procedure we have analysed 16 studies employing a simple unimanual reaction time (RT) paradigm and lateralized visual stimuli to provide an estimate of interhemispheric transfer time in normal right-handed subjects. We found a significant overall RT advantage of the left visual field over the right and of the right hand over the left. These asymmetries can be explained by a superiority of the right hemisphere for the detection of simple visual stimuli and by a corresponding superiority of the left hemisphere for the execution of the manual response, respectively. Alternatively, they may be interpreted as related to an asymmetry of interhemispheric transmission of visuomotor information, with transfer from the right hemisphere (side of stimulus entry) to the left (side of response generation) faster than in the reverse direction. Although a direct test of these hypotheses is still lacking, we think that the evidence available is more in keeping with the latter possibility.
Weisz, G. (1991, December). Meta-analysis of hypnosis and biofeedback pain control with children, adolescents and young adults (Dissertation, Pace University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (6), 3321-B. (Order No. DA 9132945)
This study used meta-analysis to investigate the issues related to treatment efficacy with hypnosis and biofeedback in anxiety management and in child, adolescent, and young adult pain. Analysis revealed that hypnosis and biofeedback were effective in pain and anxiety reduction and appeared equally effective. This contrasts with metaanalysis results by Malone & Strube (1988) showing almost triple superiority of hypnosis and autogenic training over biofeedback. The study notes methodologic variables that may distort or reduce the size of obtained effects.
1990
Bornstein, Robert F. (1990). Critical importance of stimulus unawareness for the production of subliminal psychodynamic activation effects: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46, 201-210.
Performed meta-analysis that assessed the magnitude of behavior change produced by subliminal vs supraliminal drive-related stimuli (DRS) on 11 subliminal psychodynamic activation (SPA) studies (published 1966-1989) that employed both types of stimuli. The analysis revealed that subliminal presentation of DRS produced significantly stronger effects on behavior than supraliminal presentation of the same stimuli. Stimulus content, type of outcome measure, and S characteristics influenced the magnitude of subliminal/supraliminal response differences. Results support L. H. Silverman’s (1983) hypothesis that DRS must be presented subliminally to produce SPA effects.
1989
Eppley, Kenneth R.; Abrams, Allan I.; Shear, Jonathan (1989). Differential effects of relaxation techniques on trait anxiety: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 957-974.
Conducted a meta-analysis of studies on the effects of relaxation techniques on trait anxiety. Effect sizes for the different treatments (e.g., progressive relaxation, biofeedback, meditation) were calculated. Most treatments produced similar effect sizes, although transcendental meditation (TM) produced a significantly larger effect size than other forms of meditation and relaxation. A comparison of the content of the treatments and their differential effects suggests that this may be due to the lesser amount of effort involved in TM. Meditation that involved concentration had a significantly smaller effect than progressive relaxation.
Johnson, Blair; Eagly, Alice H. (1989). Effects of involvement on persuasion: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 106 (2), 290-314.
Defines involvement as a motivational state induced by an association between an activated attitude and the self-concept. Integration of the available research suggests that the effects of involvement on attitude change depended on the aspect of message recipients’ self-concept that was activated to create involvement: (a) their enduring values (value-relevant involvement), (b) their ability to attain desirable outcomes (outcome-relevant involvement), or (c) the impression they make on others (impression- relevant involvement). Findings showed that (a) with value-relevant involvement, high- involvement subjects were less persuaded than low-involvement subjects;
1988
Malone, M.; Strube, M. (1988). Meta-analysis of non-medical treatment for chronic pain. Pain, 34, 231-234.
Conducted a meta-analysis of 109 published studies which assessed the outcome of various nonmedical treatments for chronic pain, 48 of which had sufficient information to calculate effect sizes. The remainder were examined according to proportion of patients rated as improved. Mood and number of subjective symptoms consistently showed greater responses to treatment than did pain intensity, pain duration, or frequency of pain, indicating the importance of using a multidimensional framework for pain assessment. Effect sizes for treatments were 2.74 for autogenic training, 2.67 for hypnosis, 2.23 for pill placebo, 1.33 for package treatments that allowed patients to choose from diverse pain management strategies, .95 for biofeedback, .76 for cognitive therapy, .67 for relaxation, .55 for operant conditioning, and .46 for TENS units. However, the largest numbers of studies were in the area of biofeedback, a treatment package, and relaxation, and we must be cautious in interpreting the effect sizes due to the small number of studies in the sample.
Metabolism
1985
Olness, Karen N.; Conroy, Mary Margaret (1985). A pilot study of voluntary control of transcutaneous PO 2 by children: A brief communication. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 33, 1-5.
This pilot study took place to determine whether or not children could voluntarily change tissue oxygen as measured by a transcutaneous oxygen monitor. It tested 2 hypotheses: (a) children can voluntarily change tissue oxygen as reflected by a transcutaneous oxygen monitor and (b) children, experienced in use of self-hypnosis exercises, will be able to change tissue oxygen to a greater degree than children unfamiliar with such exercises. 11 children between the ages of 7 and 17 year were studied. 8 children were previously experienced in the use of self-hypnosis; 3 were not. A Novametrix transcutaneous O 2/CO 2 monitoring system provided a constant read-out of PO 1, PCO 1 and local perfusion. After stabilization, children were asked to attempt increases of oxygen. 9 children increased tissue oxygen significantly. Of those, 8 children had previous self-hypnosis training. 1 had not. Only 2 children with no previous self- hypnosis training were unable to change oxygen values. This pilot study upholds both hypotheses; however, it does not conclude that self-hypnosis mediated the changes noted or that self-hypnosis would be essential to success in voluntary control of tissue oxygen.
1984
Holmes, David S. (1984). Meditation and somatic arousal evidence. American Psychologist, 39 (1), 1-10.
The conceptual and methodological issues associated with research on the effects of meditation are reviewed. A summary of the research in which the somatic arousal of meditating subjects was compared to the somatic arousal of resting subjects did not reveal any consistent differences between meditating and resting subjects on measures of heart rate, electrodermal activity, respiration rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, skin temperature, oxygen consumption, EMG activity, blood flow, or various biochemical factors. Similarly, a review of the research on the effects of meditation in controlling arousal in threatening situations did not reveal any consistent differences between meditating and nonmeditating (no-treatment, antimeditation, or relaxation) subjects. The implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.
1982
Throll, D. A. (1982). Transcendental meditation and progressive relaxation: Their physiological effects. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38 (3), 522-530.
Measured oxygen consumption, tidal volume, respiration rate, heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure before the Ss learned Transcendental Relaxation Meditation (Transcendental meditation: N = 21) or Jacobson’s Progressive Relaxation (PR: N = 18). Ss were tested immediately after learning either technique and again 5, 10, and 15 weeks later. While there were no significant differences between groups for any of the physiological variables at pretest, the Transcendental meditation group displayed more significant decreases during meditation and during activity than did the Psychological Review group. Both groups displayed significantly lowered metabolic rates during Transcendental meditation or PR. The generally more significant and comprehensive results for meditators were explained primarily in terms of the greater amount of time the Transcendental meditation group spent on their technique, plus the differences in the two techniques themselves. Several avenues for future research are discussed.
1980
Crosson, B. (1980). Control of skin temperature through biofeedback and suggestion with hypnotized college women. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 28 (1), 75-87.
4 groups of 9 college women attempted to raise finger temperature relative to forehead temperature during hypnosis. After a hypnotic induction, each group of Ss received 1 of the following treatments for temperature control: (a) biofeedback, (b) suggestion and imagery, (c) biofeedback plus suggestion and imagery, and (d) a relaxation, false-feedback control. Groups were initially balanced for hypnotic susceptibility. Between-subject differences in baseline temperatures were statistically controlled. After 4 training sessions, only Ss in the groups receiving biofeedback and biofeedback plus suggestion and imagry demonstrated evidence of learned temperature contol, and only Ss in the biofeedback group demonstrated a significantly greater ability to control skin temperature than Ss in the control group. Changes in temperature during hypnotic induction did not appear to affect changes during the subsequent treatment. There was no significant correlation between hypnotic susceptibility and temperature control for Ss in any group, contrary to popular assumption. Future research should attempt to ascertain if combined use of biofeedback and hypnosis offers any advantages to the use of biofeedback alone.
1979
Jackson, J. Arthur; Gass, Gregory C.; Camp, Elizabeth M. (1979). The relationship between posthypnotic suggestion and endurance in physically trained subjects. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 27, 278-293.
55 male Ss were assigned to 5 groups: control, hypnosis alone, motivation alone, low susceptible hypnosis with motivation, or high susceptible hypnosis with motivation. Ss performed 2 runs on a treadmill to their maximum capacity, as measured by oxygen consumption, blood ltate concentration, and respiratory quotient. Groups involving hypnosis performed in the posthypnotic state. A significant increase in endurance performance was revealed in the motivation alone Ss and in high susceptible hypnosis Ss who were given motivational suggestions. Maximum ventilation was significantly increased in high susceptible hypnosis Ss when compared with control Ss and significant increases in blood lactate concentrations were revealed when the high susceptible hypnosis Ss were compared with low susceptible hypnosis and motivation alone Ss. The reasons for the changes in metabolic variables are discussed. Findings demonstrated that in achieving greater endurance performance, motivational suggestions alone are as effective as identical suggestions given to high susceptible Ss.
1966
Vandenbergh, R. L. (1966). Effects of hypnotically induced emotional stress on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in patients with diabetes mellitus. Psychosomatic Medicine, 28, 382-390.
Effects of hypnotically induced emotional stress on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in patients with diabetes mellitus
1959
Crasilneck, Harold B.; Hall, James A. (1959). Physiological changes associated with hypnosis: A review of the literature since 1948. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 7 (1), 9-50. ( Abstracted in Psychological Abstracts, 61: 6626)
Topic headings include:
Experimental Techniques (Depth, Type of suggestion, Other variables)
Cardiovascular Effects (Clinical reports, Blister formation, Bleeding, Peripheral vasomotion, Heart rate, EKG changes, Blood pressure, Hematological changes)
Respiration
Urogenital System
Gastrointestinal System
Metabolism and Temperature
Endocrine System
Central Nervous System (Electroencephalography, Epilepsy, Age regression, Galvanic skin response, Muscle control, Electromotive changes, Multiple sclerosis, Cold adaptation, Exocrine glands, Reflexes, Russian reports)
Special Senses (Hearing, Taste)
Urogenital System
Gastrointestinal System
Metabolism and Temperature
Endocrine System
Central Nervous System (Electroencephalography, Epilepsy, Age regression, Galvanic skin response, Muscle control, Electromotive changes, Multiple sclerosis, Cold adaptation, Exocrine glands, Reflexes, Russian reports)
Special Senses (Hearing, Taste)
METAPHOR
METAPHOR
2000 Eimer, Bruce. N. (2000). Clinical applications of hypnosis for brief and efficient pain management psychotherapy. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 43 (1), 17-40. (July)
This paper describes four specific clinical applications of hypnosis that can make psychotherapy for pain management briefer, more goal-oriented, and more efficient: (1) the assessment of hypnotizability; (2) the induction of hypnotic analgesia and development of individualized pain coping strategies;
direct suggestion, cognitive reframing, hypnotic metaphors, and pain relief imagery; and (4) brief psychodynamic reprocessing during the trance state of emtoional factors in the patient”s experience of chonic pain. Important theoretical and clinical issues regarding the relationship between hypnotizability to the induction of hypnotic analgesia are presented, and attempts to individualize pain treatment strategies on the basis of assessed differences in hypnotizability and patients” preferred coping strategies are described. Some ways are also presented of integrating direct hypnotic suggestion, COGNITIVE-EVALUATIVE reframing, hypnotic metaphors, and imagery for alleviating the SENSORY and AFFECTIVE-MOTIVATIONAL components of pain, with an exploratory, insight-oriented, and brief psychodynamic reprocessing approach during trance for resolving unconscious sources of resistance to treatment, and reducing the emotional overlay associated with chronic pain. Some basic assumptions underlying the use of this approach are discussed, and a brief step-by-step protocol is outlined.
1999 Harper, Gary W. (1999). A developmentally sensitive approach to clinical hypnosis for chronically and terminally ill adolescents. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 42 (1), 50-60.
Adolescents who suffer from terminal and/or chronic medical illnesses must face difficult developmental issues coupled with increased burdens of physical discomfort and uncertainty about survival. Clinical hypnosis is one technique that can be used to help these individuals gain a sense of comfort and control over their lives. I describe the use of a developmentally sensitive hypnotherapeutic intervention for chronically and terminally ill adolescents. I have used the technique for the reduction of various types of physical and psychological discomfort secondary to a range of medical problems such as cancer, end-stage renal disease, organ transplant, and HIV disease. The treatment focuses on the use of personalized procedures that attempt to increase perceptions of control through interactive formats. Movement through a personally intriguing journey is used as a metaphor for controlling and moving away from discomfort. I also present three case examples as well as general treatment recommendations for clinical use.
1997 Krause, C.; Revenstorf, D. (1997). Ausformung theraputischer Metaphern. Hypnose und Kognition, 14 (1+2), 83-104.
Rhue, Judith W.; Lynn, Steven Jay (1991). Storytelling, hypnosis and the treatment of sexually abused children. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 39 (4), 198-214.
The present article describes an assessment and therapy program for sexually abused children using hypnotherapeutic techniques which center on storytelling. Storytelling presents the therapist with an opportunity to use comforting suggestions, symbolism, and metaphor to provide the emotional distance necessary to deal with the trauma of abuse. Hypnotherapy proceeds in a stepwise fashion from the building of a sense of safety and security; to imaginativge sharing; to the introduction of reality events; to the final step of addressing complex emotional issues of loss, trust, love, and guilt brought about by the abuse.
1990
Hartmann, Walter; Golden, Gail A. (1990). A “magic” aid for hypnosis and suggestion in crisis management: A brief communication. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 38 (3), 157-161.
Mentions use of the stone talisman in several kinds of cases: case of an 8-year-old girl who fell at school and broke her ankle; a case of mother and child in an automobile crash; patients with presurgery anxiety; case of suicidal rumination of a patient in ongoing psychotherapy; case of post-mastectomy fear of attending follow-up clinic. The “magic” tool is intended to help patient in carrying out suggestions. “The tool and its transfer appear to help meet the commonly observed need for something tangible in complex situations–the need for ritual to symbolize and embody our perceptions and understandings of difficult and abstract processes” (p. 159). J. Holroyd
1989
Eisen, Marlene R. (1989). Return of the repressed: Hypnoanalysis of a case of total amnesia. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 37 (2), 107-119.
A case study is presented of a woman suffering from global amnesia so profound that she had lost all sense of personal identity. Hypnotherapy was used to establish, through imagery, a solid inner core on which to rebuild a sense of self. From the image of a strong column on which rested a book with a golden lock (her history), to reading about other lives, books and stories were utilized to establish a safe external environment in which the reawakening of repressed memories was not longer perceived as dangerous. A discussion of relevant literature on the subjects of global amnesia, loss of personal identity, and post-traumatic stress is offered as a basis for discussing the present case.
1988
Kirmayer, Laurence J. (1988). Word magic and the rhetoric of common sense: Erickson’s metaphors for mind. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 36 (3), 157-172.
Milton Erickson did not produce a systematic theory of psychotherapy. His talent was as a storyteller, inventing metaphors and more extended healing fictions for his patients. A great many
of Erickson’s cases did not involve hypnosis in any conventional sense of the term. He used a wide range of persuasive rhetorical forms to encourage behavioral change in his patients. Nevertheless, taken together his work represents a significant shift in paradigm from prevailing schools of psychotherapy. Erickson captured the power of word magic in the language of common sense. This coupling of magical power with folk psychology accounts for much of his current popularity. Attempts to experimentally test his techniques are likely to be unsuccessful because these techniques were unique inventions tailored to the individual idiosyncrasies of patient and context. Although regularities in his work can be found, Erickson’s most important contributions are not techniques but changes in the values or ethos under which psychotherapy is conducted.
This paper focuses Erickson’s implicit models of mind and the values they carry. “It is here that Erickson made his most significant contribution to the general practice of psychotherapy . Erickson avoided systematization. His writing is unusually anecdotal, even for psychotherapy (Erickson, 1980; Vol IV, passim). Erickson’s writing format consists of ‘thin’ case descriptions, freely recycled in parable or homiletic form to serve his immediate rhetorical purpose. … For Erickson, flexibility and eclecticism were not signs of a lack of coherence but a spirited rejection of rigid dogma that needlessly limited therapeutic possibilities” (pp. 158-59).
Erickson used language of the common man rather than a technical vocabulary, even when speaking of ‘hypnosis’ or ‘trance’ or ‘the unconscious.’ He called his approach ‘naturalistic’ and viewed hypnotic phenomena as an extension of normal experience and behavior. His common sense descriptions of events and techniques are easily understood in general terms. “Erickson took magic and dressed it in the familiar clothes of common sense. Some of his less critical followers, however, seem intent on taking common sense and dressing it in the cloak of magic” (p. 163).
Erickson used metaphors as a way of actively involving the patient in conceptual, affective, and sensory qualities of experiences, i.e. as a “tool for thought” (p. 164).
In attempting to understand Erickson’s psychotherapy, one must note his “elastic use of the word ‘hypnosis.’ Sometimes Erickson uses the term narrowly with a focus on the elicitation of trance or dissociative phenomena, but more often he uses it broadly to mean any state of absorption” (p. 165). For him, this was “_a state of special awareness characterized by a receptiveness to ideas_” [Erickson, 1985, p. 223, emphasis in original]. By this he does not mean exclusively the classic suggestion effect where motor acts are experienced as involuntary (Evans, 1967). … The hypnotic subject exhibits a “_special willingness to examine ideas for their inherent values_ [p. 224, emphasis in original]. … For Erickson, any move in the direction of increased absorption is an instance of hypnosis. Dissociation accounts for a great deal but not all of hypnotic behavior” (p. 165). That is why he used the word hypnosis to describe heightened attention that might occur when someone is surprised. But in fact, his published cases include many other kinds of interventions, such as reframing, symptom prescription, etc.–forms of influence and persuasion used by many therapists who do not consider themselves working with hypnosis.
Erickson also emphasized that hypnosis enables one to work with ‘the unconscious.’