While sedatives and tranquilizers may reduce anxiety on a coronary care unit, occasionally they result in confusion, agitation, and ataxia (Kornfeld, 1980). Hypnosis can be used in acute medical care settings (Deltito, 1984) and is beneficial in reducing pain, suffering, and anguish (Hilgard & Hilgard, 1975). There is some suggestion that hypnosis may help regulate heart rate and blood pressure (Hilgard & Morgan, 1975).
In this study, patients with even chart numbers were in the control group, while odd-numbered patients were in the hypnosis group. Patients who were deaf or senile were excluded. All patients received their usual medications before angioplasty, and both the hypnosis group and the control group received identical treatment other than the hypnosis intervention. However, only the hypnosis group was interviewed by the first author, on the night before angioplasty, and he was also present during the angiograph itself if necessary to help relax the hypnosis patients.
The hypnosis procedure was a modification of Barber’s (1977) Rapid Induction Analgesia, and lasted about 1/2 hour. Patients were given a posthypnotic suggestion that they could achieve the same sense of relaxation the next morning during the angioplasty.
“If the patient had severe angina or had an undue amount of discomfort during the procedure, additional pain medication was given as was felt necessary by the cardiologist.
Two of 16 hypnotized and 7 of 16 control patients received pain medication. The difference is significant at p = .05 (Chi Square)” (p. 34).
“In the hypnotized patients the total catecholamine levels (538 pg/ml, SE 60) and the levels of its major component, norepinephrine (432 pg/ml, SE 51), were significantly elevated above their corresponding control levels (361 pg/ml, SE 31 and 281 pg/ml, SE 23) at the start of the angioplasty procedure (p < .01). These were unexpected findings. The epinephrine level in the hypnotized group was also higher than the corresponding level in the control group but did not reach a level of significance.
"At the end of the procedure, catecholamine levels had fallen in both groups, but the drop or [sic] total catecholamines in the hypnotized group of 124 pg/ml (SE 33) was greater than the corresponding drop of 37 pg/ml (SE 25) in the control group. This was significant at p < 0.025. Why the two groups handled catecholamines differently is not clear" (p. 33).
Generally it is hoped that relaxation will permit the cardiologist to keep a balloon inflated longer, not needing to end the procedure because of pain or a complication. The total time required for the procedure was 79 minutes for hypnotized patients and 86 minutes for controls. The inflation time was 353 seconds for hypnotized and 283 minutes for control patients. These differences (which are in the positive direction) did not achieve significance with statistical testing. However, considering the total procedure time, the balloon was inflated 25% longer in the hypnosis than in the control group (p = .10).
In their Discussion, the authors note that the reduction in pain medication required by the hypnosis patients is concordant with less pain medication being required by burn patients who are treated with hypnosis (Schafer, 1975; Wakeman & Kaplan, 1978). They do not have an explanation for finding elevated catecholamines in the hypnotized patients. "Catecholamines reportedly act as a barometer of neuroanxiety (Goldstein, 1981; Zaloga, 1988). Turton, Deegan, and Coulshed had already shown in 1977 that prior to catheterization catecholamine levels were elevated and returned to control levels 3 days later. .... One would expect that if hypnosis does cause relaxation, then those patients who were hypnotized would have a lower arterial catecholamine level than their controls. This was not the case. ... It is known that prolonged stress depletes catecholamine stores (Zaloga, 1988), but it is hard to believe that a brief hospitalized stay would cause a difference in depletion between the two groups. There is no literature dealing with the effect of hypnosis on catecholamine levels" (p. 35).
Spiegel, David; Bierre, Pierre; Rootenberg, John (1989). Hypnotic alteration of somatosensory perception. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 749-754.
The effects of hypnotic alterations of perception on amplitude of somatosensory event-related potentials were studied in 10 highly hypnotizable (HH) Subjects and 10 Subjects with low hypnotizability. The HH Subjects showed significant decreases in amplitude of the P100 and P300 waveform components during a hypnotic hallucination that blocked perception of the stimulus. When hypnosis was used to intensify attention to the stimulus, there was an increase in P100 amplitude. Findings are consistent with observations that HH individuals can reduce or eliminate pain by using purely cognitive methods such as hypnosis. Together with data from the visual system, these results suggest a neurophysiological basis for hypnotic sensory alteration.
Four conditions were presented in random order to each Subject. Normal Attention - subjects were instructed to button-press each time they felt the target stimulus. Passive Attention - subjects were instructed to attend to the stimuli but not button-press. Hypnotic Attention - subjects received a hypnotic induction (eye closure and arm levitation, which provided behavioral confirmation; then instructed to attend carefully to the stimuli, which they were told to experience as 'pleasant and interesting,' and button-press in response to targets. Hypnotic Obstructive Hallucination - hypnotic induction exercise was followed by the hypnotic suggestion of a local anesthetic, such as novocaine, spreading from fingers to hand to forearm on the stimulated limb; then instructed to make the limb cold, tingling, and numb; then told to button-press if they felt any of the target stimuli.
Experimenter was blind to hypnotizability scores.
Results were that the Highs showed significant decreases in P100 (45%) and P300 (38%) amplitudes during a hypnotic hallucination which blocked perception of the stimulus, but an increase (35%) in P100 amplitude when hypnosis was used to intensify attention to the stimulus.
The authors view this as cognitive flexibility akin to the clinical situation in which high hypnotizables reduce or completely eliminate pain. They consider this evidence (along with earlier findings on similar blocking of perception in the visual system) of a neurophysiological basis for hypnotic sensory alteration.
1987
Bongartz, Walter (1987, October). Influence of hypnosis on white blood cell count and urinary level of vanillyl mandelic acid. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Los Angeles.
They hypothesized that hypnosis benefits to immunology are due to alterations in white blood cell counts (WBC). Found that (1) blood samples before and after hypnosis with relaxation scenes led to significant decrease in WBCs compared to watching film of Mesmer or doing mental arithmetic, and (2) Vanillyl Mandelic Acid also was reduced.
After physical exercise, video game, or reading, within 20', the WBCs return to pre-relaxation levels, i.e. they hadn't left the bloodstream. Key to understanding this result: only 50% of WBCs are in circulation, and others adhere to vessel walls; the experience of hypnotic relaxation leads to less sympathetic nervous activation and less epinephrine or hormonal response. WBCs also increased over a day period with mental arithmetic, but remained the same with hypnosis.
This research is only preliminary and exploratory
1982
Sternbach, R.A. (1982). On strategies for identifying neurochemical correlates of hypnotic analgesia: A brief communication. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 30 (3), 251-256.
A test was made of the general hypothesis that central cholinergic mechanisms underlie hypnotic analgesia. Ss were given the cold pressor pain test under waking and 3 drug conditions. 6 Ss who scored very high on the tailored Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C - T) of E. R. Hilgard, Crawford, Bowers, and Kihlstrom (1979) were given atropine, propantheline, and placebo in double-blind and counterbalanced conditions, to determine if atropine would disrupt hypnotic analgesia. The study was replicated using Ss who scored lower on SHSS:C - T. The results showed only a nonsignificant tendency for atropine to interfere with hypnotic analgesia in the most hypnotizable group of Ss, and for both atropine and propantheline similarly to disrupt hypnotic analgesia for Ss in the less highly hypnotizable group. Alternative strategeis are described for identifying the neurotransmitter(s) involved in the trance state.
1981
Wilson, John F. (1981). Behavioral preparation for surgery: Benefit or harm?. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 79-102.
Elective surgery patients were prepared for surgery with training in muscle relaxation or with information about sensations they would experience. Relaxation reduced hospital stay, pain, and medication for pain and increased strength, energy, and postoperative epinephrine levels. Information reduced hospital stay. Personality variables (denial, fear,
Information reduced hospital stay. Personality variables (denial, fear, aggressiveness) were associated with recovery and influenced patients' responses to preparation. Less frightened patients benefitted more from relaxation than did very frightened patients. Nonaggressive patients reacted to information with decreased hospital stay along with increased pain, medication, and epinephrine. Aggressive patients responded to information with decreased hospital stay along with decreased pain, medication, and epinephrine. Patients using denial were not harmed by preparation. A catharsis/moderation model is proposed to explain how information benefits patients. An active coping model is proposed to explain the benefits of relaxation. This study suggests that behavioral preparation benefits even frightened, aggressive, or denying elective surgical patients.
1970
Sacerdote, Paul (1970). Theory and practice of pain control in malignancy and other protracted or recurring painful illnesses. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 18 (3), 160-180.
Recent neuroanatomical and neurophysiological experimental data suggest absence or presence of pain and changes in pain intensity as expressions of the balance between sensory (peripheral) and central (centrifugal) inputs at synaptic stations. Psychological activities by contributing to the centrifugal input influence conduction, transduction, and perception of pain stimuli. Hypnotically induced analgesia and anesthesia are therefore acceptable as neurophysiological realities. Methods for hypnotic alterations of pain based upon these premises are described utilizing neurophysiological mechanisms, psychodynamic changes, establishment of new behavioral patterns, or changes in time-space concepts and percepts. Case presentations illustrate some of these multiple psychological and physiological approaches to pain control. (Spanish & German summaries) (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved)
1964
Hammer, A. G.; Arkins, W. J. (1964). The role of photic stimulation in the induction of hypnotic trance. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12, 81-87.
The relative effectiveness of the ordinary verbal method of trance induction is compared with 2 forms of induction utilizing mechanical photic stimulation, and with methods combining the personal and mechanical features. The criterion of trance adopted was the compulsive carrying out of a difficult suggestion. Results show that mechanical procedures alone are ineffective. On the other hand, the addition of a particular sort of photic driving probably improves trance induction, which suggests that induction is a complex matter involving both social interactions and relatively nonmeaningful impacts on the brain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Karmanova, I. G. (1964). Fotogennaia katalepsiia [Photogenic catalepsy). Moscow, USSR: Leningrad Izd. Naule. (Reviewed in American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 1966, 3, 228)
The author analyses the phenomenon of photogenic catalepsy from the evolutional phylogenetic approach, including the phenomenon as demonstrated in the cock, frog, guinea-pig and dog.
The following points of view are discussed: the physiological changes, electroencephalography and electromyography in animals, and clinical narcolepsy in man. (Review in AJCH.)
1961
Mishchenko, M. (1961). The hypnotic condition as a process of nervous excitation. In Proc. Third World Congress of Psychiatry, Montreal, Canada, I. (pp. 704-708). (Abstract in American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 1964, 7, 101.)
Subjects were selected with certain predispositions for the hypnotic state and studied in the waking, hypnotic and experimental sleep states by motor conditioned reflexes modified to a specific function of the frontal system. Excitable, active students of music and literature were found most excitable as subjects, subjects tending to be passive showed no hypnotic responses. Experimental sleep abolished the motor-conditioned reflexes, quite contrary to hypnotic findings. (M.H.E. abstract in AJCH).
1960
Roberts, Donald R. (1960). An electrophysiological theory of hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 8, 43-55.
It is theorized that general hypnosis is brought about by an electrical blockage between the brain stem reticular formation and the specific-sensory, parasensory, and coordinate neuronal channels; the selective activity of brain rhythms of the delta frequency is proposed as a possible mechanism of inhibition. (50 ref.) From Psyc Abstracts 36:02:2II43R. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Neurosis
1999
Wilson, R. Reid (1999, August). Brief strategic treatment of panic disorder and OCD. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Boston, Massachusetts.
The symptoms, prevalence, and social/economic costs of Panic Disorder, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, and other anxiety disorders are reviewed. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has demonstrated efficacy for these disorders. Eriksonian and strategic principles of therapy have a number of points of contact with CBT. Taking Panic Disorder and OCD as illustrative models, this paper demonstrates how Ericksonian methods can be fruitfully combined with CBT. Examples include paradoxical interventionis, hypnosis and visual rehearsal, reframing, the fractional approach, and pattern disruption.
1997
Van Dyck, R.; Spinhoven, P. (1997). Depersonalization and derealization during panic and hypnosis in low and highly hypnotizable agoraphobics. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 45 (1), 41-54.
The primary aim of the present study was to investigate the association between spontaneous experiences of depersonalization or derealization (D-D) during panic states and hypnosis in low and highly hypnotizable phobic individuals. Secondarily, the association among level of hypnotizability, capacity for imaginative involvement, and severity of phobic complaints was also assessed. Sixty-four patients with panic disorder with agoraphobia according to the DSM-III-R (American Psychiatric Association, 1987) criteria participated in the study. Proneness to experience D-D during hypnosis was positively related to hypnotizability, but only for agoraphobic patients who had already experienced these perceptual distortions during panic episodes. Correlations of level of hypnotizability and capacity for imaginative involvement with severity of agoraphobic complaints were not significant. These findings suggest that hypnotizability may be a mediating variable between two different, although phenotypically similar, perceptual distortions experienced during panic states and hypnosis. Implications for both theory and clinical practice are discussed. -- Journal Abstract
1996
Wickramasekera, Ian; Price, Daniel C. (1996, November). Morbid obesity, absorption, neuroticism, and the high risk model of threat perception. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Tampa, FL.
We studied seventy morbidly obese patients, candidates for gastric exclusion surgery. We found that their mean absorption score was significantly lower and that their mean neuroticism score significantly higher than a matched control group. These results are consistent with predictions from the High Risk Model of Threat Perception (Wickramasekera, 1979, 1988). People high in neuroticism are hypothesized to be hypersensitive to threat at a behavioral and biological level, and therefore, at greater risk for stress related psychobiological disorders. People low in absorption are hypothesized to have poor perception of psychosocial sources of threat have a more restricted range of psychological
restricted range of psychological methods of coping with threat. Therefore, they may be at greater risk during stress of not recognizing psychosocial sources of threat of unconsciously using substances to self-soothe and of perceiving medical surgical solutions to weight gain as more credible than psychosocial therapy programs. We found that low absorption and high neuroticism as predicted by the HRMTP were significantly more prevalent among the morbidly obese seeking surgical therapy than a matched community control group.
Wickramasekera, Ian (1994, October). On the coincidence of two orthogonal risk factors for psychophysiological regulation and dysregulation: implications for somatization. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, San Francisco.
People low or high in hypnotizability are at risk. Our article in the upcoming issue of the _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_ will present this information. High hypnotizable people have either somatic symptoms or psychological symptoms; lows show primarily somatic symptoms. We found that 38% of highs and 28% of lows show somatic symptoms. The lows won't usually be found in a Mental Health Center; they are staying in primary care medical services.
Hypnotic ability and insomnia.
Insomnia was defined by EEG in 3 sleep studies (latency to stage 1 onset of EEG), and patients were screened to omit those with pathophysiology. We measured hypnotizability, finding 50% high on Harvard Scale, 40% low, with a small percent in the middle. [Thus the distribution is bi-modal.]
Neuroticism and insomnia (Wickram, Ware & Saxon, 1992). Neuroticism is the "negative affect" variable. Most people high on negative affect are high hypnotizables. Charcot was right [about high hypnotizables being neurotic] but he didn't have a measure of neuroticism. We are measuring negative affect.
PREDICTIONS. Low hypnotizables will show only or mainly somatic symptoms and be found in primary medical care or surgical settings. Highs will show a mix of somatic and psychological and somatic symptoms.
Most lows wouldn't sit still for the Harvard Scale, so we used the Absorption scale. We gave the Absorption scale to non-organic chest pain patients. Most had low scores on Absorption, followed by those with moderate scores, and fewest were highs on Absorption: 50% low, 36% moderate, 13% low.
Absorption scores in morbidly obese (350# or more) candidates for bypass surgery were: 55% are low on Absorption, 5% are high on Absorption.
People high on hypnotizability and on negative affectivity have greater risk for illness. See results of our research in American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, a recent issue. These people are more psychophysiologically reactive, in heart rate, electrodermal reactivity, etc.
Wickramasekera, Ian (1994). Psychophysiological and clinical implications of the coincidence of high hypnotic ability and high neuroticism during threat perception in somatization disorders. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 37, 22-33
The electrodermal response to cognitive threat of unhypnotized female patients with somatic symptoms and high on both hypnotic ability and neuroticism (H-H) was found to be significantly higher (p<.01) than that of a matched group of female patients moderate on hypnotic ability and low on neuroticism (M-L). On verbal report the H-H and the M-L groups did not differ, but they were significantly different on a measure of self-deception (L scale) or repression. The above findings are consistent with predictions from the High Risk Model of Threat Perception (HRMTP), which states that people in the H-H group are both chronically and acutely more reactive to threat than the people in the M-L group. This finding may have important theoretical, clinical, and financial implications for the diagnosis, therapy, and prevention of somatization disorders seen in primary medical care.
Wickramasekera, Ian (1993, August). Some psychophysiological and clinical implications of the coincidence of hypnotic ability and neuroticism during threat perception. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
The electrodermal response to cognitive threat (mental arithmetic) of unhypnotized female patients with somatic symptoms, high on hypnotic ability and high on neuroticism (high-high) was found to e significantly higher (p .01) than that of a matched group of female patients moderate on hypnotic ability and low on neuroticism (moderate- low). On verbal report or a subjective units of distress scale (SUDs), the high-high and moderate-low groups did not differ, but they were significantly different on a measure of self-deception or repression. The above findings are consistent with predictions from the High Risk Model of threat perception. (ABSTRACT from the Bulletin of Division 30, Psychological Hypnosis, Fall, 1993, Vol. 2, No. 3.)
Spiegel, David; Cardena, Etzel (1991). Disintegrated experience: The dissociative disorders revisited. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100 (3), 366-378.
Presents proposed changes to the dissociative disorders section of the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) and reviews the concept of pathological and nonpathological dissociation, including empirical findings on the relations between trauma and dissociative phenomenology and between dissociation and hypnosis. The most important proposals include the creation of 2 new diagnostic entities, brief reactive dissociative disorder and transient dissociative disturbance, and the readoption of the criterion of amnesia for a multiple personality disorder diagnosis. Further work on dissociative processes will provide an important link between clinical and experimental approaches to human cognition, emotion, and personality.
Terr, Lenore C. (1991). Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 10-20.
Suggests 4 characteristics common to most cases of childhood trauma: visualized or otherwise repeatedly perceived memories of the traumatic event; repetitive behaviors; trauma-specific fears; and changed attitudes about people, life, and the future. Childhood trauma is divided into 2 basic types. Type I trauma includes full, detailed memories, "omens," and misperceptions while Type II trauma includes denial and numbing, self-hypnosis and dissociation, and rage. Characteristics of both types of childhood trauma can exist side by side. Such crossover Type I - Type II traumatic conditions of childhood are characterized by perceptual mourning and depression and childhood disfigurement, disability, and pain. Case examples are provided.
Characteristics of both types of childhood trauma can exist side by side. Such crossover Type I - Type II traumatic conditions of childhood are characterized by perceptual mourning and depression and childhood disfigurement, disability, and pain. Case examples are provided.
Ross, Colin A.; Fast, E.; Anderson, G.; Auty, A.; Todd, J. (1990). Somatic symptoms in multiple sclerosis and MPD. Dissociation, 3, 102-106.
Fifty subjects with multiple sclerosis (MS) were compared to 50 subjects with multiple personality disorder (MPD). MS patients endorsed an average of 3.0 somatic symptoms on structured interview, and MPD subjects an average of 14.5. Somatic symptoms characteristic of neurological illness were trouble walking, paralysis, and muscle weakness, while those characteristic of psychiatric illness were genitourinary and gastrointestinal symptoms.
1989
Spinhoven, Philip; Linssen, A. Corry (1989). Education and self-hypnosis in the management of low back pain: A component analysis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28, 145-153.
Conducted a component analysis of a group program for chronic low back pain patients. 45 patients (aged 31-68 years) participated in the pain control course (PCC), consisting of education about pain and a training in self-hypnosis. A pain diary was used as a measure of pain intensity, up-time, and use of pain medication. Psychoneuroticism and depression were assessed using the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL- 90) scores. No evidence was found for a differential efficacy of education or self-hypnosis on pain diary and SCL-90 scores. Subjects showed significant changes on all measures except reported pain intensity. It is suggested that the PCC is a noninvasive, inexpensive means of treatment that could be used to teach even more severely disabled low back pain patients to cope more adequately with their pain problem.
Wickramasekera, Ian (1989). Enabling the somatizing patient to exit the somatic closet: A high-risk model. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 26 (4), 530-544.
Problems in establishing a therapeutic alliance make somatizing patients poor candidates for psychotherapy. A logical analysis is presented of the conspiracy of silence between the somatizing patient, the medical doctor, and the health insurance industry regarding the psychosocial factors contributing to somatization. Alternatives are sought to repeated biomedical tests and therapies that are clinically unproductive and iatrogenic. Two psychophysiological pathways are proposed that are promising to reduce the distance between the medical doctors' and the psychologists' procedures. The new profile of illness has produced a paradigm shift with implications for an expansion of the definition of the word "physician".
Pettinati, Helen M. (1988). Hypnosis and memory. New York and London: Guilford Press.
From a review in British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 7, 175- 178, by Vernon H. Gregg]:
Book has 5 sections: 1. method, theory 2. mechanisms of memory enhancement 3. hypnotic and other forms of reversible amnesia 4. clinical uses of hypnosis for increasing accessibility of memories and fantasies 5. Summary
The chapter by Martin Orne et al presents a comprehensive review. Perry, Lawrence, d'Eon and Tallant contribute a lively assessment of age regression procedures in the elicitation of inaccessible memories. They provide a description of procedures, a brief historical review, and discuss problems of confabulation and creation of pseudomemories. Their account is illustrated by clinical and forensic examples and gives an interesting account of belief in reincarnation in terms of source amnesia.
Section 3 has Hollander's chapter on hysteria and memory, which illustrates the concept of reversibility of amnesia with two types of hysterical conditions: one of these types, the dissociative disorders, has the potential for amnesia to be reversed but the other, histrionic personality disorders, is characterized by no reversibility.
In the section on clinical studies of memory enhancement Frankel and Kolb both accept that uncovering repressed memories and fantasies is therapeutically beneficial and that the faithfulness of recovered memories is often not important for therapeutic success. Frankel illustrates the usefulness of hypnosis with several case studies. But he thinks that clinical issues are dealt with too briefly in this book. In her summary chapter Pettinati points to the dearth of systematic research into the effectiveness of hypnosis in clinical settings.
The chapter by Martin Orne et al presents a comprehensive review. Perry, Lawrence, d'Eon and Tallant contribute a lively assessment of age regression procedures in the elicitation of inaccessible memories. They provide a description of procedures, a brief historical review, and discuss problems of confabulation and creation of pseudomemories. Their account is illustrated by clinical and forensic examples and gives an interesting account of belief in reincarnation in terms of source amnesia.
Section 3 has Hollander's chapter on hysteria and memory, which illustrates the concept of reversibility of amnesia with two types of hysterical conditions: one of these types, the dissociative disorders, has the potential for amnesia to be reversed but the other, histrionic personality disorders, is characterized by no reversibility.
In the section on clinical studies of memory enhancement Frankel and Kolb both accept that uncovering repressed memories and fantasies is therapeutically beneficial and that the faithfulness of recovered memories is often not important for therapeutic success. Frankel illustrates the usefulness of hypnosis with several case studies. But he thinks that clinical issues are dealt with too briefly in this book. In her summary chapter Pettinati points to the dearth of systematic research into the effectiveness of hypnosis in clinical settings.
1987
Baker, Elgan L.; Nash, Michael R. (1987). Applications of hypnosis in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 29, 185-193.
Historic and current reports in the literature involving applications of hypnosis with anorectic patients are reviewed and integrated to explicate core aspects of hypnotic interventions in treating anorexia nervosa. A comprehensive hypnotherapeutic approach is delineated which emphasizes the use of hypnotic strategies to reduce tension, enhance self-control, support increased and realistic body awareness, alter distorted body image, and foster appropriate autonomy and individuation. Preliminary data are also reviewed which support the clinical efficacy of this approach.
1986
Wickramasakera, Ian (1986). A model of people at high risk to develop chronic stress-related somatic symptoms: Some predictions. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 17, 437-447.
Certain measurable high-risk factors that predispose people to develop functionally based somatic disorders are identified. These risk factors compose a multidimensional model that encompasses variables involved in the predisposition, the precipitation, and the buffering of stress-related symptoms. These high-risk factors are (a) high or low hypnotic ability, (b) habitual catastrophizing cognitions and pessimistic belief systems, (c) autonomic lability or neuroticism, (d) multiple major life changes or multiple minor hassles over a short period of time, and (e) a deficit in support systems or coping skills or both
Spiegel, David; Detrick, Douglas; Frischholz, Edward (1982). Hypnotizability and psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 431-437.
Compared hypnotic responsivity of 115 chronically ill psychiatric patients (mean age 44.6 years) with that of 83 nonpatient volunteers (mean age 28.5 years). The Hypnotic Induction Profile was administered, and diagnoses ere established for patients according to Research Diagnostic Criteria. Results show that all of the diagnosed Ss (those with thought disorder, affective disorder, generalized anxiety, and miscellaneous disorders) were significantly less hypnotizable than the nonpatient comparison group. This effect was unrelated to age or medication differences. Implications of the findings are discussed in relation to a new model of hypnotic responsivity that takes into account the moderating effects of severe psychopathology. 55 refs.
1981
Scrignar, C. B. (1981). Rapid treatment of contamination phobia with hand-washing compulsion by flooding with hypnosis. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 23, 252-257.
Two obsessive-compulsive patients with contamination phobias and hand-washing compulsions are presented. Psychoanalytic psychotherapy had resulted in little change. Behavior therapy techniques of thought-stopping, systematic desensitization, progressive muscle relaxation, cognitive restructuring and self-imposed response prevention were first used, resulting in some subjective improvement, but no change in the hand-washing rate. Hypnosis, emphasizing relaxation, positive suggestion and corrective information provided further temporary subjective improvement but little change in compulsive rituals. Hypnosis, combined with the behavioral technique of flooding, produced rapid improvement. The patients maintained improvement at seven years and two years. Flooding under hypnosis may afford obsessive-compulsive patients a rapid and economical therapeutic procedure.
Smyth, L. D. (1981). An experimental hypnotic approach to teaching the psychoanalytic theory of the neuroses: A brief communication. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 29 (2), 100-106.
A procedure for training clinical graduate students in the psychoanalytic theory of the neuroses is presented. The procedure makes use of video tapes of experiments in which hypnotically implanted unconscious conflicts were used to drive a wide variety of psychopathology in the laboratory. In the procedure, the graduate students were asked to predict and rate Ss' psychopathology with foreknowledge of certain personality traits of Ss as well as foreknowledge of the nature of the conflicts. The training appeared to be an effective means of teaching them psychoanalytic theory, as well as helpful in enhancing their assessment skills
Throll, D. A. (1981). Transcendental meditation and progressive relaxation: Their psychological effects. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37 (4), 776-781.
Administered the Eysenck Personality Inventory, the State-Trait-Anxiety Inventory, and two questionnaires on health and drug usage to 39 Ss before they learned Transcendental Meditation (TM) or Progressive Relaxation (PR). All Ss were tested immediately after they had learned either technique and then retested 5, 10, and 15 weeks later. There were no significant differences between groups for any of the psychological variables at pretest. However, at posttest the TM group displayed more significant and comprehensive results (decreases in Neuroticism/Stability, Extroversion/Introversion, and drug use) than did the PR group. Both groups demonstrated significant decreases in State and Trait Anxiety. The more pronounced results for meditators were explained primarily in terms of the greater amount of time that they spent on their technique, plus the differences between the two techniques themselves.
demonstrated significant decreases in State and Trait Anxiety. The more pronounced results for meditators were explained primarily in terms of the greater amount of time that they spent on their technique, plus the differences between the two techniques themselves
1979
De L. Horne, David J.; Baillie, Jennifer (1979). Imagery differences between anxious and depressed patients. In Burrows, G. D.; Collison, D. R.; Dennerstein, L. (Ed.), Hypnosis 1979 (pp. 55-61). Amsterdam: Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press.
"In conclusion, the topic of this study is as yet a very new area of research. No other studies were found which specifically tested the difference between anxious and depressed people in imagery and hypnotic susceptibility. There were a number of limitations to the present study, which further studies could avoid. Larger samples could be used, and such variables as age, educational level and anxiety should be more carefully controlled. The type of depression, whether agitated or retarded, should be assessed, and level of arousal to the imagined scene measured mroe accurately, with for example, other physiological measures than the E.M.G. It would be preferable to test depressed people while they are not on medication. Though the effects of antidepressant drugs on imagery were not actually documented, it would seem very likely that significant effects could exist on the ability to image; these obviously warrant investigation" (p. 61).
Kleinhauz, Moris; Dreyfuss, Daniel A.; Beran, Barbara; Goldberg, Tova; Azikri, David (1979). Some after-effects of stage hypnosis: A case study of psychopathological manifestations. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 27, 219-226.
Some deleterious effects of stage hypnosis are described through a case report. A middle-aged respected member of a kibbutz who became the subject of an evening's entertainment by a stage hypnotist suffered a posttraumatic neurosis. The stage hypnotist, unaware of her traumatic childhood during World War II when she and her sister were hidden by Gentiles, requested her to regress to that age. This reactivated a former successfully repressed trauma and acted as a precipitating factor to the development of a traumatic neurosis which was left untreated. She was self-referred for adequate psychiatric treatment 11 years ater. This treatment successfully restored her to an adequate level of functioning.
1978
Acosta, Frank X.; Yamamoto, Joe; Wilcox, Stuart A. (1978). Application of electromyographic biofeedback to the relaxation training of schizophrenic, neurotic, and tension headache patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46 (2), 383-384.
This study examined the effects of electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback on tension reduction by schizophrenic, neurotic, and tension headache patients. Fourteen patients participated voluntarily in at least 10 weekly EMG biofeedback sessions at a public outpatient clinic. All had complained of chronic tension. Patients showed significant decreases in their muscle tension levels with successive biofeedback training sessions. No significant differences were found between the schizophrenic, neurotic, and tension headache groups. A further contribution was the finding that patients with diverse socioeconomic and educational levels benefitted similarly from EMG biofeedback training.
from EMG biofeedback training.
Lehrer, Paul M. (1978). Psychophysiological effects of progressive relaxation in anxiety neurotic patients and of progressive relaxation and alpha feedback in nonpatients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46 (3), 389-404.
Gave 10 anxiety neurotic patients 4 sessions of individual instruction in progressive relaxation; 10 patients served as waiting list controls. 10 nonpatients were assigned to each of the same conditions, and an additional 10 nonpatients were given 4 sessions of alpha feedback. Nonpatients showed more psychophysiological habituation over sessions than patients in response to hearing 5 very loud tones and to a reaction time task. Patients, however, showed greater physiological response to relaxation than did nonpatients. After relaxation, the autonomic responses of the patients resembled those of the nonpatients. The effects of relaxation were more pronounced in measures of physiological reactivity than in measures of physiological activity. Defensive reflexes yielded to orienting reflexes more readily in nonpatients than in patients. There was also a tendency for progressive relaxation to generalize to autonomic functions more than alpha feedback.
Nichols, Michael P.; Bierenbaum, Howard (1978). Success of cathartic therapy as a function of patient variables. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34 (3), 726-8.
Treated sample of 42 patients with cathartic psychotherapy and evaluated differential effectiveness on types of patients. Patients without mental disorders experienced more emotional catharsis than all others, and those with obsessive compulsive personality disorders improved more than all others as a result of emotive treatment. Contrary to popular notions, neither women nor hysterics experienced more catharsis or improved more in cathartic therapy. Although women and hysterics may cry more easily in daily life, obsessives are apparently more able to maintain focus on unhappy experiences and are therefore able to express more emotion in cathartic therapy. Furthermore, it seems that cathartic treatment is beneficial by disrupting long-standing defenses against emotional experience, rather than by releasing stored-up affects.
Wickramasekera, Ian (1974). Heart rate feedback and the management of cardiac neurosis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 83 (5), 578-580.
This article describes the treatment of a chronic case of cardiac neurosis which had failed to respond to several prior medical and psychological interventions. Significant and durable symptomatic response appeared to be correlated with the application of a combination of procedures including heart rate feedback, patient- administered desensitization, and therapist-administered flooding
Schneck, Jerome M. (1966). Hypnoanalytic elucidation of a childhood germ phobia. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 14, 305-307.
